Endnotes: Questions and Answers: Inclusive Practice in the Prevention of Sexually Transmitted and Blood Borne Infections among Ethnocultural Minorities

Endnotes

Footnote footnotei

Sexually transmitted and blood borne infections (STBBIs) refer to infectious diseases that are transmitted through bodily fluids such as blood, vaginal fluids and semen. They include: chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, syphilis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), genital herpes, lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV), and trichomoniasis.

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Footnote footnoteii

For consistency in this document, we use the term "ethnocultural minority" to refer to all racialized and ethnic groups.

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Footnote footnoteiii

The term "people from countries where HIV is endemic" is an epidemiologic term often used in HIV/AIDS surveillance and research activities and refers to a population that is largely composed of Black people of African and Caribbean descent. There are currently 71 countries that comprise the list of countries in which HIV is endemic. Among these, 42 are in Africa (mostly Sub-Saharan Africa), 26 are in the Caribbean and Central/South Central America, and three are in Asia.

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Footnote footnoteiv

Other ethnic origins include Hispanic, East Asian, Middle Eastern, and South East Asian. There were no significant differences between Aboriginal and Black, African or Caribbean street youth.

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Footnote footnotev

Refers to youth whose parent(s) are immigrants and who have been in Canada for at least four years

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Footnote footnotevi

Refers to youth who were born in Canada and had parents who were also born in Canada.

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Footnote footnote1

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2008). Canadian Guidelines for Sexual Health Education (3rd Ed.). Ottawa.

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Footnote footnote2

For more information, see: Public Health Agency of Canada. (2010). Questions & Answers: Sexual Orientation in Schools. Ottawa;Public Health Agency of Canada. (2010). Questions & Answers: Gender Identity in Schools. Ottawa; Public Health Agency of Canada. (2013). Questions & Answers: Sexual Health Education for Youth with Physical Disabilities. Ottawa.

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Footnote footnote3

Culley, L. (1996). A critique of multiculturalism in health care: The challenge for nurse education. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 23, 564-570. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.1996.tb00020.x.; Smye, V., & Browne, A.J. (2002). 'Cultural safety' and the analysis of health policy affecting Aboriginal people. Nurse Researcher, 9(3), 42-56; Dick, S., Duncan, S., Gillie, J., Mahara, S., Morris, J., Smye, V., & Voyageur, E. (2006). Cultural safety: Module 2: People's experiences of oppression. Retrieved from http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/csafety/mod1/index.htm. Retrieved on 18 July 2012; Smye, V. (2008). Integrating Culture and 'Difference' into Practice and Policy. BC Cancer Agency. Retrieved from http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/41696B14-B892-4E8E-A275-5033FA37005E/28908/Vicki_CulturalSafetyBCCA08.pdf. Retrieved on 18 July 2012.

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Footnote footnote4

Tully, J. (1995). Strange multiplicity: constitutionalism in an age of diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Dhamoon, R. (2009). Identity/difference politics: how difference is produced, and why it matters. British Columbia: University of British Columbia Press.

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Footnote footnote5

UNESCO. (2009). International Technical Guidelines on Sexuality Education. Paris, France: UNESCO. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001832/183281e.pdf. Retrieved on 18 July 2012

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Footnote footnote6

Statistics Canada. (2011). Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada, National Household Survey 2011. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 99-010-X2011001. Ottawa, ON.. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-010-x/99-010-x2011001-eng.pdf. Retrieved on 8 May 2013

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Footnote footnote7

Ibid

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Footnote footnote8

Ibid

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Footnote footnote9

Ibid

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Footnote footnote10

Statistics Canada. Citizenship (5), Place of Birth (236), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey (data file). Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=0&P ID=105411&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID =0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=. Retrieved on 24 May 2013.

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Footnote footnote11

For a complete list of these countries see Public Health Agency of Canada. (2012). HIV/AIDS Epi Updates: HIV/AIDS in Canada among people from countries where HIV is endemic, April 2012, Centre for Communicable Diseases and Infection Control, Public Health Agency of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.catie.ca/sites/default/files/HIV-Aids_EpiUpdates_Chapter13_EN.pdf. Retrieved on 5 October 2012; Public Health Agency of Canada. (2012). Summary: Estimates of HIV Prevalence and Incidence in Canada. Ottawa, ON. Retrieved from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/survreport/estimat2011-eng.php. Retrieved on 30 January 2013.

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Footnote footnote12

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2012). Report on Sexually Transmitted Infections in Canada, 2010. Ottawa, ON.

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Footnote footnote13

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2013). Enhanced Street Youth Surveillance in Canada (E-SYS). Cycles 3-5: Unpublished Data. Ottawa, Ontario: Public Health Agency of Canada

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Footnote footnote14

Hallfors, D.D., Iritani, B.J., Miller, W.C., Bauer, D.J. (2007). Sexual and Drug Behavior Patterns and HIV and STD Racial Disparities: The Need for New Directions. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1),125-132. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.075747.; Garofalo, R., Mustanski, B., Johnson, A., Emerson, E. (2010). Exploring Factors That Underlie Racial/Ethnic Disparities in HIV Risk among Young Men Who Have Sex with Men. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 87(2), 318-323. doi:10.1007/s11524-009-9430-z.

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Footnote footnote15

Lofters, A.K., Glazier, R.H., Agha, M.M., Creatore, M.I., & Moineddin, R. (2007). Inadequacy of cervical cancer screening among urban recent immigrants: A population-based study of physician and laboratory claims in Toronto, Canada. Preventive Medicine, 44(6), 536-542; Redwood-Campbell, L., Thind, H., Howard, M., Koteles, J., Fowler, N., & Kaczorowski, J. (2008). Understanding the health of refugee women in host countries: Lessons from the Kosovar re-settlement in Canada. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 23(4), 322-327; Statistics Canada. (2005). Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) Cycle 3.1 Public Use Micro Data File (PUMF) user guide. Ottawa, ON; Statistics Canada, 2008a; Toronto Teen Survey. (2009). Newcomer and Longer-term Immigrant Bulletin. Planned Parenthood Toronto. Toronto, ON. Retrieved from http://www.ppt.on.ca/userfiles//TTS_BulletinNC_web%281%29.pdf. Retrieved on 8 December 2011

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Footnote footnote16

Stewart, M., Neufeld, A., Harrison, M., Spitzer, D., Hughes, K., & Makwarimba, E. (2006). Immigrant women family caregivers in Canada: implications for policies and programmes in health and social sectors. Health and Social care in the Community, 14 (4), 329-340. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2524.2006.00627.x.; Toronto Teen Survey, 2009; Wu, Z., Penning, M.J., & Schimmele, C.M. (2005). Immigrant Status and Unmet Health Care Needs. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 369-373. Retrieved from http://journal.cpha.ca/index.php/cjph/article/viewFile/662/662. Retrieved on 13 July 2012.

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Footnote footnote17

Ibid

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Footnote footnote18

Toronto Teen Survey, 2009

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Footnote footnote19

Ibid

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Footnote footnote20

Ramsden, I. (1992). Kawa Whakaruruhau: Guidelines for Nursing and Midwifery Education. Wellington, NZ: Nursing Council of New Zealand.

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Footnote footnote21

Papps, E. (2005). Chapter 2-Cultural safety: Daring to be different. In D. Wepa (Ed.), Cultural safety in Aotearoa New Zealand (p. 20-28). Auckland: Pearson Education New Zealand.

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Footnote footnote22

Betancourt, J.R., Green, A.R., Carrillo, J.E., & Ananeh-Firempong, O. (2003). Defining Cultural Competence: A Practical Framework for Addressing Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health and Health Care. Public Health Reports, 118, 293-302. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497553/pdf/12815076.pdf. Retrieved on 19 August 2011; Dowsett, G., Aggleton, P., Abega, S., Jenkins, C., Marshall, T., Runganga, S.,...Tarr, C.M. (1998). Changing gender relations among young people: The global challenge for HIV/AIDS prevention. Critical Public Health, 8(4), 291-309. doi: 10.1080/09581599808402917.

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Footnote footnote23

Brach, C., & Fraserirector, I. (2000). Can Cultural Competency Reduce Racial And Ethnic Health Disparities? A Review And Conceptual Model. Medical Care Research and Review, 57 (1), 181-217. doi: 10.1177/107755800773743655.

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Footnote footnote24

Wendt & Gone, 2012

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Footnote footnote25

Aboriginal Nurses Association of Canada. (2009). Cultural Competence and Cultural Safety in Nursing Education: A Framework for First Nations, Inuit and Métis Nursing. Retrieved from http://www.anac.on.ca/Documents/Making%20It%20Happen%20Curriculum%20Project/FINALFRAMEWORK.pdf. Retrieved on 11 July 2012.

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Footnote footnote26

Ramsden, I. (1990). Cultural safety. The New Zealand Nursing Journal. Kai Tiaki., 83(11), 18-19; Papps, E., & Ramsden, I. (1996). Cultural safety in nursing: The New Zealand experience. International Journal of Qualitative Health Care, 8(5), 491-497. doi: 10.1093/intqhc/8.5.491.; Ramsden, I. (1997). Cultural safety: Implementing the concept. The social force of nursing and midwifery. In: Te Whaiti, P., McCarthy, M., Durie, A. (Eds.). Mai i Rangiatea: Maori Wellbeing and Development. Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press: 113-125; Wepa, D. (Ed.) (2005). Cultural Safety in Aotearoa, New Zealand. Auckland: Pearson Education New Zealand.

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Footnote footnote27

Smye, V., & Browne A.J. (2002). 'Cultural Safety' and the analysis of health policy affecting Aboriginal people. Nurse Researcher, 9(3), 42-46; Wendt, D.C., & Gone, J.P. (2012). Rethinking cultural competence: Insights from indigenous community treatment settings. Transcultural Psychiatry, 49, 206-222. doi:10.1177/1363461511425622.

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Footnote footnote28

Griner, D. & Smith, T.B. (2006). Culturally adapted mental health intervention: A meta-analytic review. Psychotherapy: Theory, research, practice, training, 43(4), 531-548. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.43.4.531.; Hasnain, R., Kondratowicz, D.M., Borokhovski, E., Nye, C., Balcazar, F., Portillo, N., Hanz, K., Johnson, T., Gould, R. (2011). Do Cultural Competency Interventions Work?: A systematic review on improving rehabilitation outcomes for ethnically and linguistically diverse individuals with disabilities. Focus: A publication of the National Center for the Dissemination of Disability Research, Technical Brief No. 31. Retrieved from http://www.ncddr.org/kt/products/focus/focus31/Focus31.pdf. Retrieved on 11 October 2012.

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Footnote footnote29

Hawkins, R.P., Kreuter, M., Resnicow, K., Fishbein, M., Dijkstra, A. (2008). Understanding tailoring in communicating about health. Health Education Research, 23(3),454-466. doi:10.1093/her/cyn004.; Kreuter, M.W., & Wray, R.J. (2003). Tailored and Targeted Health Communication: Strategies for Enhancing Information Relevance. Am J Health Behav, 27(Suppl 3),S227-S232. Kreuter, M.W., Lukwago, S.N., Bucholtz, D.C., Clark, E.M., Sanders-Thompson, V. (2003). Achieving Cultural Appropriateness in Health Promotion Programs: Targeted and Tailored Approaches. Health Educ Behav, 30,133. doi: 10.1177/1090198102251021.

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Footnote footnote30

World Health Organization. (2007). WHO Commission on the Social Determinants of Health. A Conceptual framework for action on the social determinants of health. Discussion Paper 2 Prepared by Solar O, Irwin A. Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241500852_eng.pdf. Retrieved on 6 September 2012; Marmot, M., Friel, S., Bell, R., Houweling, T.A.J., & Taylor, S. (2008). Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. The Lancet, 372, 1661-1669.

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Footnote footnote31

Statistics Canada. (2003). Ethnic Diversity Survey: A Portrait of a Multicultural Society. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-593-XIE. Ottawa, ON. September 29. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-593-x/89-593-x2003001-eng.pdf. Retrieved on 22 August 2011

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Footnote footnote32

Pepler, D., Connolly, J., & Craig, W. (2000). Bullying and Harassment: Experiences of Minority and Immigrant Youth. Toronto: Joint Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement.

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Footnote footnote33

Canadian Human Rights Commission. (2008). Harassment: What it is and what to do about it. Catalogue No. HR21-43/1993. Retrieved from http://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/eng/content/publications. Retrieved on 22 August 2011.

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Footnote footnote34

Ibid

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Footnote footnote35

Mallinson, K. (2010). Gay and bisexual men. In B. Swanson (Ed.), ANAC's core curriculum for HIV/AIDS nursing (3rd ed.) (p. 231-237). Boston, MA: Jonesand Bartlett; Brooks, D. (2010). Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning (GLBTQ) Youth: A population in need of understanding and support. Washington, DC: Advocates for Youth. Retrieved from http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/storage/advfy/documents/glbtq_youth%202010.pdf. Retrieved on 24 November 2011; For more information on sexual orientation in the schools, please refer to "Questions and Answers: Sexual Orientation in Schools" in this series.

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Footnote footnote36

Cooper, M., & Cooper, G. (2008). Overcoming barriers to the positive development and engagement of ethno-racial minority youth in Canada. Retrieved from http://www.isccalgary.ca/carestrategy/documents/Overcomingbarrierstodevelopmentandengagement2008.pdf. Retrieved on 27 June 2011;Liebkind, K., & Jasinskaja-Lahti, I. (2000). Acculturation and Psychological Well-Being Among Immigrant Adolescents in Finland: A Comparative Study of Adolescents From Different Cultural Backgrounds. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15(4), 446-469. doi: 10.1177/0743558400154002.; Liebkind, K., Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., & Solheim, E. (2004). Cultural Identity, Perceived Discrimination, and Parental Support as Determinants of Immigrants' School Adjustments: Vietnamese Youth in Finland. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(6), 635-656. doi: 10.1177/0743558404269279; Migliardi & Stephens, 2007; Ngo, H., Schleifer, B. (2004). Immigrant children and youth in focus. Retrieved from http://canada.metropolis.net/pdfs/Van_ngo_e.pdf. Retrieved on 24 November 2011.

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Footnote footnote37

Augustine, J. (2004). Youth of Colour: At Disproportionate Risk of Negative Sexual Health Outcomes. Transitions 15(3). Washington, DC: Advocates for Youth

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Footnote footnote38

Toronto Teen Survey. (2009). Black, African and Caribbean Youth. Planned Parenthood Toronto. Toronto, ON. Retrieved from http://www.ppt.on.ca/userfiles//TTS_BlackYouthBulletin_web.pdf. Retrieved on 8 December 2011.

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Footnote footnote39

Statistics Canada. (2010). Visual census, 2006 Census. Ottawa, ON. December 7. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/fs-fi/index.cfm?Lang=ENG&TOPIC_ID=7&PRCODE=01. Retrieved on 10 November 2011.

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Footnote footnote40

Block, S. & Galabuzi, G.-E. (2011). Canada's Colour Coded Labour Market Toronto: Wellesley Institute and Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Retrieved from http://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/ National%20Office/2011/03/Colour%20Coded%20Labour%20Market.pdf; Lee, K. (2000). Urban Poverty in Canada: A Statistical Profile. Canadian Council on Social Development. Retrieved from http://www.ccsd.ca/pubs/2000/up/. Retrieved on 18 July 2012; Palameta, B. (2004). Low income among immigrants and visible minorities, Perspectives, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 75-001-XIE. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/75-001-x/10404/6843-eng.pdf; Toronto Public Health. (2013). Racialization and Health Inequities in Toronto. Retrieved from http://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2013/hl/bgrd/backgroundfile-62904.pdf.

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Footnote footnote41

Nakhaie, M. Reza; Smylie, L.; Arnold, R. (2008). Social inequalities, Social Capital, and the Health of Canadians. Review of Radical Political Economics, 39(4), 562-585.

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Footnote footnote42

Williamson, D.L., Stewart, M.J., Hayward, K., Letourneau, N., Makwarimba, E., Masuda, J., Wilson, D. (2006). Low-income Canadians' experiences with health-related services: Implications for health care reform. Health Policy, 76, 106-121, doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.05.005.; Feinstein, J.S. (1993). The Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Health: A Review of the Literature. The Milbank Quarterly, 71(2), 279-322. Retrieved from http://www.jonathanfeinstein.com/PDFs/relationship.pdf. Retrieved on 16 November 2011.

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Footnote footnote43

Hardwick, D., & Patychuk, D. (1999). Geographic Mapping Demonstrates the Association between Social Inequality, Teen births, and STDS among youth. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 8(2), 77-90. Retrieved from CBCA Reference and Current Events. (Document ID: 47357354); Langille, D.B, Flowerdew, G., & Andreou, P. (2004). Teenage pregnancy in Nova Scotia communities: Associations with contextual factors. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 13(2), 83-94. Retrieved from CBCA Reference and Current Events. (Document ID: 782609321).

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Footnote footnote44

Davis, L. (2010). Adolescent Sexual Health and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Call for Cultural Competency. Advocates for Youth. Retrieved from http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/storage/advfy/documents/adolescent_sexual_health_and_the_dynamics.pdf. Retrieved on 2 August 2011.

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Footnote footnote45

Romans, S., Forte, T., Cohen, M.M., Du Mont, J., & Hyman, I. (2007). Who Is Most at Risk for Intimate Partner Violence?: A Canadian Population-Based Study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22,1495-1515. doi: 10.1177/0886260507306566.; Vives-Cases, C., Torrubiano-Dominguez, J., Escriba-Aguir, V., Ruiz-Perez, I., Montero-Pinar, M.I., & Gil-Gonzalez, D. (2011). Social Determinants and Health Effects of Low and High Severity Intimate Partner Violence. Annals of Epidemiology, 21(12), 907-913. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.02.003.

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Footnote footnote46

Ngo & Schleifer, 2004

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Footnote footnote47

Kazanjian, A., Morettin, D., & Cho, R. (2004). Health Care Utilization by Canadian Women. BMC Women's Health, 4(1), S33. doi:10.1186/1472-6874-4-S1-S33.;Vissandjee, B., DesMeules, M., Cao, Z., Abdool, S., & Kazanjian, A. (2004). Integrating ethnicity and immigration as determinants of Canadian women's health. Women's Health Surveillance Report. Ottawa: Canadian Institute for Health Information.

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Footnote footnote48

For more information, see: Public Health Agency of Canada. (2010). Questions & Answers: Gender Identity in Schools. Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada.

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Footnote footnote49

Graves, K., & Leigh, B. (1995). The relationship of substance use to sexual activity among young adults in the United States. Family Planning Perspectives, 27, 18-22. Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2701895.pdf. Retrieved on 2 December 2011; Shrier, L.A., Harris, S.K., Sternberg, M., & Beardslee, W.R. (2001). Associations of Depression, Self-Esteem, and Substance Use with Sexual Risk among Adolescents. Preventive Medicine, 33,179-189. doi: 10.1006/pmed.2001.0869.; Poulin & Graham, 2001

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Footnote footnote50

Zou, S., Tepper, M., Giulivi, A. (2000). Current status of hepatitis C in Canada. Can J Public Health. 91(1),S10-S15;Public Health Agency of Canada. (2006). I-Track: Enhanced Surveillance of Risk Behaviours among People who Inject Drugs. Phase I Report, August 2006. Surveillance and Risk Assessment Division, Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Public Health Agency of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/i-track/sr-re-1/pdf/itrack06_e.pdf. Retrieved on 11 December 2012.

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Footnote footnote51

Poulin, C., & Graham, L. (2001). The association between substance use, unplanned sexual intercourse and other sexual behaviours among adolescent students. Addiction, 96, 607-621; MacDonald, T. K., Fong, G. T., Zanna, M. P., & Martineau, A. M. (2000). Alcohol myopia and condom use: Can alcohol intoxication be associated with more prudent behavior? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 605-619; MacDonald, T. K., Zanna, M. P., & Fong, G. T. (1996). Why common sense goes out the window: The effects of alcohol on intentions to use condoms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 763-775.

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Footnote footnote52

Smylie, L., Medaglia, S., & Maticka-Tyndale, E. (2006). The effect of social capital and socio-demographics on adolescent risk and sexual health behaviours. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 15(2), 95-112.

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Footnote footnote53

Durrant, R. & Thakker, J. (2003) Substance Use and Abuse: Cultural and Historical Perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Footnote footnote54

Agic, B. (2004). Culture counts: Best Practices in Community Education in Mental Health and Addiction with Ethnoracial/Ethnocultural Communities Phase One Report. Toronto: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Accès : www.camh.ca/en/education/Documents/www.camh.net/education/Resources_ communities_organizations/culture_counts_jan05.pdf

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Footnote footnote55

Degano, C., Fortin, R., & Rempel, B. (2007). Alcohol and Youth Trends: Implications for Public Health. Alcohol Education Projects, Ontario Public Health Association. Retrieved from http://www.apolnet.ca/resources/pubs/rpt_AlcoholYouth-5Nov07.pdf. Retrieved on 2 December 2011.

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Footnote footnote56

U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime. (2004). Drug abuse prevention among youth from ethnic and indigenous minorities (E.04.XI.17). Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/handbook_ethnic_english.pdf. Retrieved on 16 November 2011.

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Footnote footnote57

Bennett, G.G., Wolin, K.Y., Robinson, E.L., Fowler, S., & Edwards, C.L. (2005). Racial/ethnic harassment and tobacco use among African American young adults. American Journal of Public Health, 95(2), 238-240; Pascoe, E.A., & Richman, L.S (2009). Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, (4),531-554; Williams, D.R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20-47.

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Footnote footnote58

McDonald, J.T. (2006). The Health Behaviours of Immigrants and Native-Born People in Canada . Atlantic Metropolis Centre-Working Paper Series. Working Paper No. 01-06. Halifax (NS): Atlantic Metropolis Centre.

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Footnote footnote59

Agic, 2004.; Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse.(2010). Building on our strengths: Canadian standards for school-based youth substance abuse prevention (version 2.0). Ottawa, ON: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse.

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Footnote footnote60

Beiser, M. (2006). Longitudinal research to promote effective refugee resettlement. Transcultural Psychiatry, 43(1):56-71. doi: 10.1177/1363461506061757; Here to help. (2011). Cross-cultural mental health and substance use. Retrieved from www.heretohelp.bc.ca/sites/ default/files/Crosscultural2010.pdf.

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Footnote footnote61

Ibid; Simich, L., Beiser, M., Stewart, M., & Mwakarimba, E. (2005). Providing social support for immigrants and refugees in Canada: Challenges and directions. Journal of Immigrant Health. 7(4), 259-268.

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Footnote footnote62

Canadian Institute for Health Information.(2009). Improving the Health of Canadians: Exploring Positive Mental Health. Ottawa: CIHI. Retrieved from http://www.cihi.ca/cihi-ext-portal/pdf/internet/improving_health_canadians_en; Provencher, H.L., & Keyes, C.L.M. (2011). Complete mental health recovery: Bridging mental illness and positive mental health. Journal of Public Mental Health, 10 (1), 57–69; Mental Health Commission of Canada. (2012). Changing directions, changing lives: The mental health strategy for Canada. Calgary, AB. Retrieved from http://strategy.mentalhealthcommission.ca/pdf/strategy-images-en.pdf

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Footnote footnote63

Beiser 2006; Hyman, I. (2009). Racism as a Determinant of Immigrant Health. Unpublished. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/pubs/hpr-rpms/bull/2010-health-sante-migr/index-eng.php; De Maio, F. & Kemp, E. (2010). The Deterioration of Health Status Among Immigrants to Canada. Global Public Health, 5(5), 462-478. doi: 10.1080/17441690902942480

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Footnote footnote64

Cooper, M., and Cooper, G. (2008). Overcoming Barriers to the Positive Development and Engagement of Ethno-Racial Minority Youth in Canada. Retrieved from http://eslaction.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Background-Document-Youth-Framework-3.pdf; Hyman 2009; Noh, S. & Kaspar, V. (2003). Perceived discrimination and depression: moderating effects of coping, acculturation, and ethnic support. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2):232-8.

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Footnote footnote65

Caron-Malenfant, E. (2004). Suicide in Canada's immigrant population.Statistics Canada Health Reports, 15(2), 9-17. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2003002/article/6807-eng.pdf. Retrieved on 20 February 2012.; Joshi, P., Damstrom-Albach, D., Ross, I., & Hummel, C. (2009). Suicide Prevention, Intervention and Postvention Initiative for BC. Vancouver, BC: Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention Centre of BC. Retrieved from http://suicidepipinitiative.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/suicide-pip-initiative-full-report.pdf. Retrieved on 6 December 2011.

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Footnote footnote66

Dean, J. A., & Wilson, K. (2009). 'Education? It is irrelevant to my job now. It makes me very depressed....': Exploring the health impacts of under/unemployment among highly skilled recent immigrants in Canada. Ethnicity and Health, 14, 185-204. doi: 10.1080/13557850802227049; Kinnon, 1999; Ngo & Schleifer, 2004; Hyman, 2001; Canadian Mental Health Association. Immigrants and Refugees. Retrieved from http://www.cmha.ca/public_policy/immigrant-and-refugee-mental-health-backgrounder/. Retrieved on 21 June 2011. Dean, J. A., & Wilson, K. (2009). 'Education? It is irrelevant to my job now. It makes me very depressed....': Exploring the health impacts of under/unemployment among highly skilled recent immigrants in Canada. Ethnicity and Health, 14, 185-204. doi: 10.1080/13557850802227049.

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Footnote footnote67

Shellenberg, G. & Maheux, H. (2007). Immigrants' Perspectives on their First Four Years in Canada: Highlights from Three Waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada." Canadian Social Trends, special ed. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 11-008,1-34. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2007000/pdf/9627-eng.pdf. Retrieved on 6 December 2012.

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Footnote footnote68

Patel, V., Flisher, A.J., Hetrick, S., McGorry, P. (2007). Mental health of young people: a global public-health challenge. The Lancet, 369, 1302-13. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60368-7.

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Footnote footnote69

Seal, A., Minichiello, V., & Omodei, M. (1997). Young women's sexual risk taking behaviour: re-visiting the influences of sexual self-efficacy and sexual self-esteem. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 8, 159-165. doi: 10.1258/0956462971919822.; Stiffman, A.R., Dore, P., Earls, F., & Cunningham, R. (1992). The Influence of Mental Health Problems on AIDS-Related Risk Behaviors in Young Adults. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 180(5), 314-320. doi: 10.1097/00005053-199205000-00005.; Shrier, L.A., Harris, S.K., Sternberg, M., & Beardslee, W.R. (2001). Associations of Depression, Self-Esteem, and Substance Use with Sexual Risk among Adolescents. Preventive Medicine, 33(3), 179-189. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0869.

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Footnote footnote70

Meade, C.S., & Sikkema, K.J. (2001). HIV risk behavior among adults with severe mental illness: a systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25,433-457. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.02.001.; Carey, M.P., Carey, K.B., Weinhardt, L.S., & Gordon, C.M. (1997). Behavioral risk for HIV infection among adults with a severe and persistent mental illness: Patterns and psychological antecedents. Community Mental Health Journal, 33,133-142.

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Footnote footnote71

Macdonald, T.K., & Martineau, A.M. (2002). Self-Esteem, Mood, and Intentions to Use Condoms: When Does Low Self-Esteem Lead to Risky Health Behaviors? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,38, 299-306; Shrier et al., 2001 doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1505

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Footnote footnote72

Ibid

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Footnote footnote73

Hansson, E., Tuck, A., Lurie, S., & McKenzie K. for the Task Group of the Services Systems Advisory Committee, Mental Health Commission of Canada. (2010). Improving mental health services for immigrant, refugee, ethno-cultural and racialized groups: Issues and options for service improvement. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/node/469. Retrieved on 20 February 2012.

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Footnote footnote74

Canadian Mental Health Association. (2008a). The Relationship between Mental Health, Mental Illness and Chronic Physical Conditions. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/document/457/improving-mental-health-services-immigrant-refugee-ethno-cultural-and-racialized-groups. Retrieved on 20 February 2013; Government of Canada. (2006). The Human Face of Mental Health and Mental Illness in Canada. Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada. Ottawa, ON.

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Footnote footnote75

Canadian AIDS Treatment Information Exchange. (2009). Managing Your Health: A guide for people living with HIV. Toronto: Canadian AIDS Treatment Information Exchange.

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Footnote footnote76

Canadian Mental Health Association. (2008b). Recommendations for Preventing and Managing Co-Existing Chronic Physical Conditions and Mental Illnesses. Retrieved from http://ontario.cmha.ca/public_policy/recommendations-for-preventing-and-managing-co-existing-chronic-physical-conditions-and-mental-illnesses/. Retrieved on 20 February 2013.

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Footnote footnote77

Maticka-Tyndale, E., Shirpak, K., & Chinichian, M. (2007). Providing for the sexual health needs of Canadian immigrants: the experience of immigrants from Iran. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 98(3), 183-186.

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Footnote footnote78

Health Canada, 2010; Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2009). Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration. Ottawa (ON): Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved from http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/annual-report2009/index.asp. Retrieved on 26 June 2012.

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Footnote footnote79

Novinger, T. (2001). Intercultural communication: A practical guide. Austin: University of Texas.

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Footnote footnote80

Dunn, J.R., & Dyck, I. (2000). Social determinants of health in Canada's immigrant population: results from the National Population Health Survey. Social Science & Medicine, 51(11), 1573-1593. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00053-8.; Kinnon, 1999; Perez, C.E. (2002). Health status and health behavior among immigrants. Supplement to health reports, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 82-003-SIE, p. 112. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-s/2002001/pdf/82-003-s2002005-eng.pdf. Retrieved on 8 December 2011; Newbold, K.B., & Danforth, J. (2003). Health status and Canada's immigrant population. Social Science & Medicine, 57(10), 1981-199. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00064-9.

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Footnote footnote81

Espin, O.M. (2006). Gender, sexuality, language, and migration. In R. Mahalingam (Ed.) Cultural psychology of immigrants (p. 241-258). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Footnote footnote82

McMichael, 2008.

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Footnote footnote83

Maticka-Tyndale, E., Shirpak, K.R., & Chinichian, M. (2007). Providing for the sexual health needs of Canadian immigrants: The experience of immigrants from Iran. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 98, 183-186.

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Footnote footnote84

Oxford English Dictionary. (2012). "Refugee, n.". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Third Edition., September 2009. Retrieved from http://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/161121. Retrieved on 29 November 2012.

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Footnote footnote85

McKeary, M. & Newbold, B. (2010). Barriers to Care: The Challenges for Canadian Refugees and their Health Care Providers. Journal of Refugee Studies,23(4),523-545. doi: 10.1093/jrs/feq038.; Caulford, P. & Vali, Y. (2006). Providing health care to medically uninsured immigrants and refugees. CMAJ,174(9),1253-1254.doi: 10.1503/cmaj.051206.

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Footnote footnote86

Sexuality and U. (2010). The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.sexualityandu.ca/. Retrieved on 27 March 2012; Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. (2013). Recommendations on screening for cervical cancer. CMAJ,185(1),35-45. doi:10.1503/cmaj.121505.

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Footnote footnote87

Ministry of Health of New Zealand. (2006). Asian Health Chart Book 2006. Wellington: Ministry of Health. Retrieved from http://www.health.govt.nz/publications/asian-health-chart-book-2006. Retrieved on 23 August 2011.

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Footnote footnote88

Lee, J., & Hahm, H.C. (2010). Acculturation and Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Latina Adolescents Transitioning to Young Adulthood. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 39, 414-427. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9495-8.; Kasirye et al., 2005; Kaplan, C.P., Erickson, P.I., & Juarez-Reyes, M. (2002). Acculturation, Gender Role Orientation, and Reproductive Risk-Taking Behavior among Latina Adolescent Family Planning Clients. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17(2), 103-121. doi: 10.1177/074355840217200.1

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Footnote footnote89

Newbold, B. (2005). Health status and health care of immigrants in Canada: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 10(2), 77-83. doi: 10.1258/1355819053559074.

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Footnote footnote90

Lebrun, L.A. (2012). Effects of length of stay and language proficiency on health care experiences among Immigrants in Canada and the United States. Social Science & Medicine,74(7), 1062-1072. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.031.

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Footnote footnote91

Williams, M.V., Palar, K., Pitkin Derose, K. (2011). Congregation-Based Programs to Address HIV/AIDS: Elements of Successful Implementation. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 88(3),617-532.

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Footnote footnote92

Francis, S.A., & Liverpool, J. (2009). A Review of Faith-Based HIV Prevention Programs . J Relig Health, 48,6-15.

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Footnote footnote93

McMichael, C. (2008). Promoting sexual health amongst resettled youth with refugee backgrounds. Melbourne: Refugee Health Research Centre.

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Footnote footnote94

Uba, L. (1992). Cultural Barriers to Health Care for Southeast Asian Refugees. Public Health Reports, 107(5), 544-8. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1403696/pdf/pubhealthrep00071-0058.pdf. Retrieved on 07 November 2011.

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Footnote footnote95

Pottie, K., Greenaway, K., Feightner, J., Welch, V., Swinkels, H., Rashid, M.,...Tugwell, P. (2011). Evidence-based clinical guidelines for immigrants and refugees. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 183(12), E824-925. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.090313.

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Footnote footnote96

Durham, M.G. (2004). Constructing the "New Ethnicities": Media, Sexuality, and Diaspora Identity in the Lives of South Asian Immigrant Girls. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 21(2),140-161.

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Footnote footnote97

Maticka-Tyndale, Shirpak, & Chinichian, 2007

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Footnote footnote98

Hyman & Guruge, 2002; Meyer, M.C., Torres, S., Cermeno, N., MacLean, L., & Monzon, R. (2003). Immigrant women implementing participatory research in health promotion. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 25(7), 815-834. doi: 10.1177/0193945903256707.

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Footnote footnote99

Ungar, M., Brown, M., Liebenberg, L., Othman, R., Kwong, W. M., Armstrong, M., et al. (2007). Unique pathways to resilience across cultures. Adolescence, 42(166), 287-310; Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across Cultures. British Journal of Social Work, 38, 218-235. doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bcl343.

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Footnote footnote100

Milburn, K. (1995). A critical review of peer education with young people with special reference to sexual health. Health Education Research, 10(4), 407-420. doi: 10.1093/her/10.4.407.

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Endnotes: Questions and Answers: Inclusive Practice in the Prevention of Sexually Transmitted and Blood Borne Infections among Ethnocultural Minorities

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