Abdelzaher, A.M., Wright, M.E., Ortega, C., Solo-Gabriele, H.M., Miller, G., Elmir, S., Newman, X., Shih, P., Bonilla, J.A., Bonilla, T.D., Palmer, C.J., Scott, T., Lukasik, J., Harwood, V.J., McQuaig, S., Sinigalliano, C., Gidley, M., Plano, L.R.W., Zhu, X., Wang, J.D. and Fleming, L.E. (2010). Presence of pathogens and indicator microbes at a non-point source subtropical recreational marine beach. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 76(3): 724-732.
Ahmed, W., Goonetilleke, A., Powell, D. and Gardner, T. (2009). Evaluation of multiple sewage-associated Bacteroides PCR markers for sewage pollution tracking. Water Res., 43: 4872-4877.
Ahmed, W., Goonetilleke, A. and Gardner, T. (2010). Human and bovine adenoviruses for the detection of source-specific fecal pollution in coastal waters in Australia. Water Res., 44: 4662-4673.
Ahmed, W., Zhang, Q., Kozak, S., Beale, D., Gyawali, P., Sadowsky, M.J. and Simpson, S. (2019). Comparative decay of sewage-associated marker genes in beach water and sediment in a subtropical region. Water Res., 149: 511-521.
Alm, E.W., Burke, J. and Spain, A. (2003). Fecal indicator bacteria are abundant in wet sand at freshwater beaches. Water Res., 37: 3978-3982.
Alm, E.W., Daniels-Witt, Q.R., Learman, D.R., Ryu, H., Jordan, D.W., Gehring, T.M. and Santo Domingo, J. (2018). Potential for gulls to transport bacteria from human waste sites to beaches. Sci. Total Environ., 615: 123-130.
Ashbolt, N.J., Schoen, M.E., Soller, J.A. and Roser, D.J. (2010). Predicting pathogen risks to aid beach management: The real value of quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Water Res., 44: 4692-4703.
Bartram, J. and Rees, G. (eds.). (2000). Monitoring bathing waters - A practical guide to the design and implementation of assessments and monitoring programmes. New York (NY): E & FN Spon.
Bernhard, A.E. and Field, K.G. (2000a). Identification of nonpoint sources of fecal pollution in coastal waters by using host-specific 16S ribosomal DNA genetic markers from fecal anaerobes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 66: 1587-1594.
Bernhard, A.E. and Field, K.G. (2000b). A PCR assay to discriminate human and ruminant feces on the basis of host differences in Bacteroides-Prevotella genes encoding 16S rRNA. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 66: 4571-4574.
Bertke, E.E. (2007). Composite analysis for Escherichia coli at coastal beaches. J. Great Lakes Res., 33(2): 335-341.
Boehm, A.B., Grant, S.B., Kim, J.H., Mowbray, S.L., McGee, C.D., Clark, C.D., Foley, D.M. and Wellman, D.E. (2002). Decadal and shorter period variability of surf zone water quality at Huntington Beach, California. Environ. Sci. Technol., 36: 3885-3892.
Boehm, A.B., Fuhrman, J.A., Mrše, R.D. and Grant, S.B. (2003). Tiered approach for identification of a human fecal pollution source at a recreational beach: case study at Avalon Bay, Catalina Island, California. Environ. Sci. Technol., 37: 673-680.
Boehm, A.B., Shellenbarger, G.G. and Paytan, A. (2004). Groundwater discharge: potential association with fecal indicator bacteria in the surf zone. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38: 3558-3566.
Boehm, A.B., Griffith, J., McGee, C., Edge, T.A., Solo-Gabriele, H.M., Whitman, R., Cao, Y., Getrich, M., Jay, J.A., Ferguson, D., Goodwin, K.D., Lee, C.M., Madison, M. and Weisberg, S.B. (2009). Faecal indicator bacteria enumeration in beach sand: a comparison study of extraction methods in medium to coarse sands. J. Appl. Microbiol., 107: 1740-1750.
Boehm, A. B., Soller, J. A. and Shanks, O. C. (2015). Human-associated fecal quantitative polymerase chain reaction measurements and simulated risk of gastrointestinal illness in recreational waters contaminated with raw sewage. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., 2 (10): 270-275.
Boehm, A.B., Graham, K.E. and Jennings, W. (2018). Can we swim yet? Systematic review, meta-analysis, and risk assessment of aging sewage in surface waters. Environ. Sci. Technol., 52(17): 9634-9645.
Boehm, A.B. and Soller, J.A. (2020). Refined ambient water quality thresholds for human-associated fecal indicator HF183 for recreational waters with and without co-occurring gull fecal contamination. Microb. Risk Anal., 16: 100139.
Bolton, F.J., Surman, S.B., Martin, K., Wareing, D.R. and Humphrey, T.J. (1999). Presence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in sand from bathing beaches. Epidemiol. Infect., 122(1): 7-13.
Bonilla, T.D., Nowosielski, K., Cuvelier, M., Hartz, A., Green, M., Esiobu, N., McCorquodale, D.S., Fleisher, J.M. and Rogerson, A. (2007). Prevalence and distribution of fecal indicator organisms in South Florida beach sand and preliminary assessment of health effects associated with beach sand exposure. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 54: 1472-1482.
Bower, P.A., Scopel, C.O., Jensen, E.T., Depas, M.M. and McLellan, S.L. (2005). Detection of genetic markers of fecal indicator bacteria in Lake Michigan and determination of their relationship to Escherichia coli densities using standard microbiological methods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 71: 8305-8313.
Brooks, W., Corsi, S., Fienen, M. and Carvin, R. (2016). Predicting recreational water quality advisories: A comparison of statistical methods. Environ. Model. Softw., 76: 81-94.
Brown, K.I., Graham, K.E., Soller, J.A. and Boehm, A.B. (2017). Estimating the probability of illness due to swimming in recreational water with a mixture of human- and gull-associated microbial source tracking markers. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts, 19(12): 1528-1541.
Byappanahalli, M., Fowler, M., Shively, D. and Whitman, R. (2003). Ubiquity and persistence of Escherichia coli in a Midwestern coastal stream. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 69(8): 4549-4555.
Byappanahalli, M.N., Whitman, R.L. Shively, D.A., Sadowsky, M.J. and Ishii, S. (2006). Population structure, persistence, and seasonality of autochthonous Escherichia coli in temperate, coastal forest soil from a Great Lakes watershed. Environ. Microbiol., 8(3): 504-513.
Byappanahalli, M.N., Nevers, M.B., Korajkic, A., Staley, Z.R. and Harwood, V.J. (2012). Enterococci in the environment. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., 76(4): 685-706.
Cao, Y., Sivaganesan, M., Kelty, C.A., Wang, D., Boehm, A.B., Griffith, J.F., Weisberg, S.B. and Shanks, O.C. (2018). A human fecal contamination score for ranking recreational sites using the HF183/BacR287 quantitative real-time PCR method. Water Res., 128: 148-156.
Carson, A.C., Shear, B.L., Ellersieck, M.R. and Asfaw, A. (2001). Identification of fecal Escherichia coli from humans and animals by ribotyping. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 67: 1503-1507.
CCME (2004). From source to tap: Guidance on the multi-barrier approach to safe drinking water. Produced jointly by the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Task Group. Available at www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/water-eau/drink-potab/multi-barrier/index-eng.php
Chan, S.N., Thoe, W. and Lee, J.H.W. (2013). Real-time forecasting of Hong Kong beach water quality by 3D deterministic model. Water Res., 47: 1631-1647.
Codd, G.A., Morrison, L.F. and Metcalf, J.S. (2005). Cyanobacterial toxins: risk management for health protection. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 203(3): 264-272.
Converse, R.R., Kinzelman, J.L., Sams, E.A., Hudgens, E., Dufour, A.P., Ryu, H., Santo-Domingo, J.W., Kelty, C.A., Shanks, O.C., Siefring, S.D., Haugland, R.A. and Wade, T.J. (2012). Dramatic improvements in beach water quality following gull removal. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46(18): 10206-10213.
Cyterski, M., Brooks, W., Galvin, M., Wolfe, K., Carvin, R., Roddick, T., Fienen, M. and Corsi, S. (2013). Virtual Beach 3.0.4: User's Guide. National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA and U.S. Geological Survey, Middleton, WI.
DeFlorio-Barker, S., Arnold, B.F., Sams, E.A., Dufour, A.P., Colford, J.M., Jr., Weisberg, S.B., Schiff, K.C. and Wade, T.J. (2018). Child environmental exposures to water and sand at the beach: Findings from studies of over 68,000 subjects at 12 beaches. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol., 28(2): 93-100.
Devane, M.L., Moriarty, E.M., Robsona, B., Lin, S., Wood, D., Webster-Brown, J. and Gilpin, B.J. (2019). Relationships between chemical and microbial faecal source tracking markers in urban river water and sediments during and post-discharge of human sewage. Sci. Total Environ., 651: 1588-1604.
Dombek, P.E., Johnson, L.K., Zimmerley, S.T. and Sadowsky, M.J. (2000). Use of repetitive DNA sequences and the PCR to differentiate Escherichia coli isolates from human and animal sources. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 66: 2572-2577.
Dorevitch, S., Dworkin, M.S., DeFlorio, S.A., Janda, W.M., Wuellner, J. and Hershow, R.C. (2012). Enteric pathogens in stool samples of Chicago-area water recreators with new-onset gastrointestinal symptoms. Water Res., 46: 4961-4972.
Dubinsky, E.A., Esmaili, L., Hulls, J.R., Cao,Y., Griffith, J.F., and Andersen, G.L. (2012) Application of phylogenetic microarray analysis to discriminate sources of fecal pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46: 4340-4347.
Dubinsky, E.A., Butkus, S.R., and Andersen, G.L. (2016) Microbial source tracking in impaired watersheds using PhyloChip and machine-learning classification. Water Res., 105: 56-64.
Dufour, A., Wade, T.J. and Kay, D. (2012). Epidemiological studies on swimmer health effects associated with potential exposure to zoonotic pathogens in bathing beach water - a review. In:
Dufour, A., Bartram, J., Bos, R. and Gannon, V. (eds.). Animal waste, water quality and human health. London (UK): IWA Publishing, pp. 415-428.
Edge, T.A. and Hill, S. (2007). Multiple lines of evidence to identify the sources of fecal pollution at a freshwater beach in Hamilton Harbour, Lake Ontario. Water Res., 41(16): 3585-3594.
Edge, T.A., Hill, S., Seto, P. and Marsalek, J. (2010). Library-dependent and library-independent microbial source tracking to identify spatial variation in fecal contamination sources along a Lake Ontario beach (Ontario, Canada). Water Sci. Technol., 62(3): 719-727.
Edge, T.A., Hill, S., Crowe, A., Marsalek, J., Seto, P., Snodgrass, B., Toninger, R. and Patel, M. (2018). Remediation of a beneficial use impairment at Bluffer's Park Beach in the Toronto Area of Concern. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag., 21: 285-292.
Edge, T.A., Boyd, R.J., Shum, P. and Thomas, J.L. (2021). Microbial source tracking to identify fecal sources contaminating the Toronto Harbour and Don River watershed in wet and dry weather. J. Great Lakes Res. (in press).
Eichmiller, J.J., Borchert, A.J., Sadowsky, M.J. and Hicks, R.E. (2014). Decay of genetic markers for fecal bacterial indicators and pathogens in sand from Lake Superior. Water Res., 59: 99-111.
Eregno, F.E., Tryland, I., Tjomsland, T., Myrmel, M., Robertson, L. and Heistad, A. (2016). Quantitative microbial risk assessment combined with hydrodynamic modelling to estimate the public health risk associated with bathing after rainfall events. Sci. Total Environ., 548-549: 270-279.
Farkas, K., Adriaenssens, E.M., Walker, D.I., McDonald, J.E., Malham, S.K. and Jones, D.L. (2019). Critical evaluation of crAssphage as a molecular marker for human-derived wastewater contamination in the aquatic environment. Food Environ. Virol., 11: 113-119.
Federigi, I., Verani, M., Donzelli, G., Cioni, L., and Carducci, A. (2019). The application of quantitative microbial risk assessment to natural recreational waters: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 144: 334-350.
Ferguson, D.M., Moore, D.F., Getrich, M.A. and Zhowandai, M.H. (2005). Enumeration and speciation of enterococci found in marine and intertidal sediments and coastal water in southern California. J. Appl. Microbiol., 99(3): 598-608.
Fogarty, L.R., Haack, S.K., Wolcott, M.J. and Whitman, R.L. (2003). Abundance and characteristics of the recreational water quality indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and enterococci in gull faeces. J. Appl. Microbiol., 94(5): 865-878.
Francy, D.S. and Darner, R.A. (2007). Nowcasting beach advisories at Ohio Lake Erie beaches: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007 - 1427, 13 p.
Francy, D.S., Brady, A.M.G., Carvin, R.B., Corsi, S.R., Fuller, L.M., Harrison, J.H., Hayhurst, B.A., Lant, J., Nevers, M.B., Terrio, P.J. and Zimmerman, T.M. (2013a). Developing and implementing predictive models for estimating recreational water quality at Great Lakes beaches: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2013 - 5166, 68 p., http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20135166/
Francy, D.S., Stelzer, E.A., Duris, J.W., Brady, A.M.G., Harrison, J.H., Johnson, H.E. and Ware, M.W. (2013b). Predictive models for Escherichia coli concentrations at inland lake beaches and relationship of model variables to pathogen detection. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 79(5): 1676.
Frick, W.E., Ge, Z. and Zepp, R.G. (2008). Nowcasting and forecasting concentrations of biological contaminants at beaches: a feasibility and case study. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42(13): 4818-4824.
Glassmeyer, S.T., Furlong, E.T., Kolpin, D.W., Cahill, J.D., Zaugg, S.D., Werner, S.L., Meyer, M.T. and Kryak, D.D. (2005). Transport of chemical and microbial compounds from known wastewater discharges: potential for use as indicators of human fecal contamination. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39(14): 5157-5169.
Gonzalez, R.A. and Noble, R.T. (2014). Comparisons of statistical models to predict fecal indicator bacteria concentrations enumerated by qPCR- and culture-based methods. Water Res., 48: 296-305.
Gorham, T.J. and Lee, J. (2016). Pathogen loading from Canada geese faeces in freshwater: Potential risks to human health through recreational water exposure. Zoonoses Public Health, 63: 177-190.
Government of Alberta (2019). Alberta safe beach protocol. July 2019. Available at https://open.alberta.ca/publications/9781460145395.
Green, H.C., Dick, L.K., Gilpin, B., Samadpour, M. and Field, K.G. (2012). Genetic markers for rapid PCR-based identification of gull, Canada goose, duck, and chicken fecal contamination in water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 78(2): 503-510.
Green, H.C., Haugland, R.A., Varma, M., Millen, H.T., Borchardt, M.A., Field, K.G., Walters, W.A., Knight, R., Sivaganesan, M., Kelty, C.A. and Shanks, O.C. (2014). Improved HF183 quantitative real-time PCR assay for characterization of human fecal pollution in ambient surface water samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 80(10): 3086-3094.
Griffith, J.F., Weisburg, S.B. and McGee, C.D. (2003). Evaluation of microbial source tracking methods using mixed fecal sources in aqueous test samples. J. Water Health, 1(4): 141-151.
Griffith, J.F., Layton, B.A., Boehm, A.B., Holden, P.A., Jay, J.A., Hagedorn, C., McGee, C.D. and Weisberg, S.B. (2013). The California microbial source identification manual: a tiered approach to identifying fecal pollution sources at beaches. Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Technical Report 804. December, 2013.
Haack, S.K., Duris, J.W., Fogarty, L.R., Kolpin, D.W., Focazio, M.J., Furlong, E.T. and Meyer, M.T. (2009). Comparing wastewater chemicals, indicator bacteria concentrations, and bacterial pathogen genes as fecal pollution indicators. J. Environ. Qual., 38: 248-258.
Halliday, E. and Gast, R.J. (2011). Bacteria in beach sands: an emerging challenge in protecting coastal water quality and bather health. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45(2): 370-379.
Hartz, A., Cuvelier, M., Nowosielski, K., Bonilla, T.D., Green, M., Esiobu, N., McCorquodale, D.S. and Rogerson, A. (2008). Survival potential of Escherichia coli and Enterococci in subtropical beach sand: implications for water quality managers. J. Environ. Qual., 37(3): 898-905.
Harwood, V.J., Staley, C. Badgley, B.D., Borges, K. and Korajkic, A. (2014). Microbial source tracking markers for detection of fecal contamination in environmental waters: relationships between pathogens and human health outcomes. FEMS Microbiol. Rev., 38: 1-40.
He, C., Post, Y., Dony, J., Edge, T., Patel, M. and Rochfort, Q. (2016). A physical descriptive model for predicting bacteria level variation at a dynamic beach. J. Water Health, 14(4): 617.
Health Canada (2022a). Guidelines for Canadian recreational water quality - cyanobacteria and their toxins. Guideline Technical Document. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/guidance-canadian-recreational-water-quality-cyanobacteria-toxins.html
Health Canada (2022b). Guidelines for Canadian recreational water quality - physical, aesthetic and chemical characteristics. Guideline Technical Document. https://www.canada.ca/en/services/health/publications/healthy-living/guidelines-canadian-recreational-water-physical-aesthetic-chemical-characteristics.html
Health Canada (2023). Guidelines for Canadian recreational water quality: Guideline Technical Document – Indicators of Fecal Contamination. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
Health Canada (in publication). Guidelines for Canadian recreational water quality: Guideline Technical Document - Microbiological Sampling and Analysis. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
Heaney, C.D., Sams, E., Wing, S., Marshall, S., Brenner, K., Dufour, A.P. and Wade, T.J. (2009). Contact with beach sand among beachgoers and risk of illness. Am. J. Epidemiol., 170(2): 164-172. Epub 2009 Jun 18.
Heaney, C.D., Exuma, N.G., Dufour, A.P., Brenner, K.P., Haugland, R.A., Chern, E. Schwab, K.J., Love, D.C., Serre, M.L., Noble, R. and Wade, T.J. (2014). Water quality, weather and environmental factors associated with fecal indicator organism density in beach sand at two recreational marine beaches. Sci. Total Environ., 497-498: 440-447.
Heany, C.E., Sams, E., Dufour, A.P., Brenner, K.P., Haugland, R.A., Chern, E., Wing, S., Marshall, S., Love, D.C., Serre, M., Noble, R. and Wade, T.J. (2012). Fecal indicators in sand, sand contact, and risk of enteric illness among beachgoers. Epidemiology, 23(1): 95-106.
Hernandez, R.J., Hernandez, Y., Jimenez, N.H., Piggot, A.M., Klaus, J.S., Feng, Z., Reniers, A. and Solo-Gabriele, H.M. (2014). Effects of full-scale beach renovation on fecal indicator levels in shoreline sand and water. Water Res. 48: 579-591.
Hughes, B., Beale, D.J., Dennis, P.J., Cook, S. and Ahmed, W. (2017). Cross-comparison of human wastewater-associated molecular markers in relation to fecal indicator bacteria and enteric viruses in recreational beach waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 83(8): e00028-17.
IAFP (2016). Procedures to investigate waterborne illness. 3rd edition. International Association for Food Protection, Committee on the Control of Foodborne Illness, Des Moines, Iowa.
Ishii, S., Ksoll, W.B., Hicks, R.E. and Sadowsky, M.J. (2006a). Presence and growth of naturalized Escherichia coli in temperate soils from Lake Superior watersheds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72(1): 612-621.
Ishii, S., Yan, T., Shively, D.A., Byappanahalli, M.N., Whitman, R.L. and Sadowsky, M.J. (2006b). Cladophora (Chlorophyta) spp. harbor human bacterial pathogens in nearshore water of Lake Michigan. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72(7): 4545-4553.
Jamieson, R.C., Gordon, R.J. and Tattrie, S.C. (2003). Sources and persistence of fecal coliform bacteria in a rural watershed. Water Qual. Res. J. Canada, 38(1): 33-47.
Jamieson, R.C., Joy, D.H., Lee, H., Kostachuk, R. and Gordon, R.J. (2004). Persistence of enteric bacteria in alluvial streams. J. Environ. Eng. Sci., 3: 203-212.
Johnston, C., Ufnar, J.A., Griffith, J.F., Gooch, J.A. and Stewart, J.R. (2010). A real-time qPCR assay for the detection of the nifH gene of Methanobrevibacter smithii, a potential indicator of sewage pollution. J. Appl. Microbiol., 109: 1946-1956.
Jones, R.M., Liu, L. and Dorevitch, S. (2013). Hydrometeorological variables predict fecal indicator bacteria densities in freshwater: data-driven methods for variable selection. Environ. Monit. Assess., 185: 2355-2366.
Kelly, E.A., Feng, Z., Gidley, M.L., Sinigalliano, C.D., Kumar, N., Donahue, A.G., Reniers, A.J.H.M. and Solo-Gabriele, H.M. (2018). Effect of beach management policies on recreational water quality. J. Environ. Manage., 212: 266-277.
Khatib, L.A., Tsai, Y.L. and Olson, B.H. (2002). A biomarker for the identification of cattle fecal pollution in water using the LTIIa toxin gene from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 59: 97-104.
Khatib, L.A., Tsai, Y.L. and Olson, B.H. (2003). A biomarker for the identification of swine fecal pollution in water, using the STII toxin gene from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 63: 231-238.
Kildare, B.J., Leutenegger, C.M., McSwaina, B.S., Bambic, D.G, Rajala, V.B. and Wuertz, S. (2007). 16S rRNA-based assays for quantitative detection of universal, human-, cow-, and dog-specific fecal Bacteroidales: A Bayesian approach. Water Res., 41: 3701-3715.
Kinzelman, J.L., Pond, K.R., Longmaid, K.D. and Bagley, R.C. (2004). The effect of two mechanical beach grooming strategies on Escherichia coli density in beach sand at a southwestern Lake Michigan beach. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag., 7(3): 425-432.
Kinzelman, J.L., Dufour, A.P., Wymer, L.J., Rees, G., Pond, K.R. and Bagley, R.C. (2006). Comparison of multiple point and composite sampling for monitoring bathing water quality. Lake Reserv. Manag., 22(2): 95-102.
Kinzelman, J.L. and McLellan, S.L. (2009). Success of science-based best management practices in reducing swimming bans – a case study from Racine, Wisconsin, USA. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag., 12(2): 187-196.
Korajkic, A., McMinn, B., Herrmann, M.P., Sivaganesan, M., Kelty, C.A., Clinton, P., Nash, M.S. and Shanks, O.C. (2020). Viral and bacterial fecal indicators in untreated wastewater across the contiguous United States exhibit geospatial trends. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 86: e02967-19.
Lake County Health Department (2010). SwimCast data. Lake County Health Department, Waukegan, Illinois. Available at www.lakecountyil.gov.
Lawrence, S.J. (2012). Escherichia coli bacteria density in relation to turbidity, streamflow characteristics, and season in the Chattahoochee River near Atlanta, Georgia, October 2000 through September 2008 - Description, statistical analysis, and predictive modeling. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2012-5037. http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2012/5037
Layton, A., McKay, L., Williams, D., Garrett, V., Gentry, R. and Sayler, G. (2006). Development of Bacteroides 16S rRNA gene TaqMan-based real-time PCR assays for estimation of total, human, and bovine fecal pollution in water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72(6): 4214-4224.
Leecaster, M.K. and Weisberg, S.B. (2001). Effect of sampling frequency on shoreline microbiology assessments. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42: 1150-1154.
Levesque, B., Brousseau, P., Simard, P., Dewailly, E., Meisels, M., Ramsay, D. and Joly, J. (1993). Impact of the Ring-billed Gull (Larus delawarensis) on the microbiological quality of recreational waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59(4): 1228-1230.
Lu, J., Santo Domingo, J.W., Lamendella, R., Edge, T. and Hill, S. (2008). Phylogenetic diversity and molecular detection of bacteria in gull feces. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 74(13): 3969-3976.
Lu, J., Ryu, H., Santo Domingo, J.W., Griffith, J.F. and Ashbolt, N. (2011). Molecular detection of Campylobacter spp. in California gull (Larus californicus) excreta. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 77(14): 5034-5039.
Marino, F., Moringo, M., Martinez-Manzanares, E. and Borrego, J. (1995). Microbiological-epidemiological study of selected marine beaches in Malaga (Spain). Water Sci. Technol., 31: 5-9.
Mayer, R.E., Reischer, G.H., Ixenmaier, S.K., Derx, J., Blaschke, A.P., Ebdon, J.E., Linke, R., Egle, L., Ahmed, W., Blanch, A.R., Byamukama, D., Savill, M., Mushi, D., Cristobal, H.A., Edge, T.A., Schade, M.A., Aslan, A., Brooks, Y.M., Sommer, R., Masago, Y., Sato, M.I., Huw, Å., Taylor, D., Rose, J.B., Wuertz, S., Shanks, O.C., Piringer, H., Mach, R.L., Savio, D., Zessner, M. and Farnleitner, A.H. (2018). Global distribution of human-associated fecal genetic markers in reference samples from six continents. Environ. Sci. Technol., 52(9): 5076-5084.
McBride, G.B., Stott, R., Miller, W., Bambic, D. and Wuertz, S. (2013). Discharge-based QMRA for estimation of public health risks from exposure to stormwater-borne pathogens in recreational waters in the United States. Water Res., 47: 5282-5297.
McQuaig, S.M., Scott, T.M., Lukasik, J.O., Paul, J.H. and Harwood, V.J. (2009). Quantification of human polyomaviruses JC virus and BK virus by TaqMan quantitative PCR and comparison to other water quality indicators in water and fecal samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 75(11): 3379-3388.
MDDEP (2004). Critères de qualité de l'eau de surface au Québec. Ministère du Développement durable, de l'Environnement et des Parcs. Government of Quebec. Available at www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/eau/criteres_eau/index.htm
Mednick, A.C. (2012). Building operational "Nowcast" models for predicting water quality at five Michigan beaches. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. PUB-SS-1098 2012.
MELCC (2019). La qualité de l'eau et les usages récréatifs. Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques. Government of Quebec. Available at http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/eau/recreative/qualite.htm#conta-micro
MOE (2012). Technical bulletin: Is your beach a candidate for predictive modeling? Ministry of the Environment. Government of Ontario. Toronto, ON [unpublished].
Mohammed, R.L, Echeverry, A., Stinson, C.M., Green, M., Bonilla, T.D., Hartz, A., McCorquodale, D.S., Rogerson, A. and Esiobu, N. (2012). Survival trends of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Clostridium perfringens in a sandy South Florida beach. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 64: 1201-1209.
Moriarty, E.M., Karki, N., Mackenzie, M., Sinton, L.W., Wood, D.R. and Gilpin, B.J. (2011). Fecal indicators and pathogens in selected New Zealand waterfowl. N. Z. J. Mar. Freshwater Res., 45(4): 679-688.
Napier, M.D., Haugland, R., Poole, C., Dufour, A.P., Stewart, J.R., Weber, D.J., Varma, M., Lavender, J.S. and Wade, T.J. (2017). Exposure to human-associated fecal indicators and self-reported illness among swimmers at recreational beaches: a cohort study. Environ. Health, 16: 103.
Napier, M.D., Poole, C., Stewart, J.R., Weber, D.J., Glassmeyer, S.T., Kolpin, D.W., Furlong, E.T., Dufour, A.P. and Wade, T.J. (2018). Exposure to human-associated chemical markers of fecal contamination and self-reported illness among swimmers at recreational beaches. Environ. Sci. Technol., 52(13): 7513-7523.
Neet, M.J., Kelsey, R.H., Porter, D.E., Ramage, D.W. and Jones, A.B. (2015) Model results and software comparisons in Myrtle Beach, SC using Virtual Beach and R regression toolboxes. Journal of South Carolina Water Resources, 2(1): Article 8.
Nevers, M.B., Shively, D.A., Kleinheinz, G.T., McDermott, C.M., Schuster, W., Chomeau, V. and Whitman, R.L. (2009). Geographic relatedness and predictability of Escherichia coli along a peninsular beach complex of Lake Michigan. J. Environ. Qual., 38: 2357-2364.
Nguyen, K.H., Senay, C., Young, S., Nayak, B., Lobos, A., Conrad, J. and Harwood, V.J. (2018). Determination of wild animal sources of fecal indicator bacteria by microbial source tracking (MST) influences regulatory decisions. Water Res., 144: 424-434.
NHMRC (2008). Guidelines for managing risks in recreational water. National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, Government of Australia, Canberra.
Noble, R.T., Griffith, J.F., Blackwood, A.D., Fuhrman, J.A., Gregory, J.B., Hernandez, X., Liang, X., Bera, A.A. and Schiff, K. (2006). Multitiered approach using quantitative PCR to track sources of fecal pollution affecting Santa Monica Bay, California. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72: 1604-1612.
Obiri-Danso, K. and Jones, K. (1999). Distribution and seasonality of microbial indicators and thermophilic campylobacters in two freshwater bathing sites on the River Lune in northwest England. J. Appl. Microbiol., 87(6): 822-832.
Obiri-Danso, K. and Jones, K. (2000). Intertidal sediments as reservoirs for hippurate negative campylobacters, salmonellae and fecal indicators in three EU recognised bathing waters in north west England. Water Res., 34(2): 519-527.
OHHLEP (2021). One health high-level expert panel annual report 2021. OHHLEP Annual Report 2021. Available at https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/food-safety/onehealth/ohhlep-annual-report-2021.pdf
Okabe, S., Okayama, N., Savichtcheva, O. and Ito, T. (2007). Quantification of host-specific Bacteroides-Prevotella 16S rRNA genetic markers for assessment of fecal pollution in freshwater. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 74: 890-891.
Olyphant, G.A. and Pfister, M. (2005). SwimCast: Its physical and statistical basis. In Proceedings of the Joint Conference-Lake Michigan: State of the Lake and the Great Lakes Beach Association, Green Bay, WI, November 2–3, 2005.
Palmer, J.A., Law, J.Y. and Soupir, M.L. (2020). Spatial and temporal distribution of E. coli contamination on three island lake and recreational beach systems in the upper Midwestern United States. Sci. Total Environ., 722:137846.
Pendleton, L., Martin, N. and Webster, D.G. (2001). Public perceptions of environmental quality: a survey study of beach use and perceptions in Los Angeles County. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42: 1155-1160.
Poulson, R.L., Luttrell, P.M., Slusher, M.J., Wilcox, B.R., Niles, L.J., Dey, A.D., Berghaus, R.D., Krauss, S., Webster, R.G. and Stallknecht, D.E. (2017). Influenza A virus: sampling of the unique shorebird habitat at Delaware Bay, USA. R. Soc. Open Sci., 4: 171420.
Quessy, S. and Messier, S. (1992). Prevalence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Listeria spp. in ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis). J. Wildl. Dis., 28(4): 526-531.
Reicherts, J.D. and Emerson, C.W. (2010). Monitoring bathing beach water quality using composite sampling. Environ. Monit. Assess., 168: 33-43.
Rijal, G., Tolson, J.K., Petropoulou, C., Granato, T.C., Glymph, A., Gerba, C., Deflaun, M.F., O'Connor, C., Kollias, L. and Lanyon, R. (2011). Microbial risk assessment for recreational use of the Chicago Area Waterway System. J. Water Health, 9(1): 169-186.
Rusiñol, M., Fernandez-Cassi, X., Hundesa, A., Vieira, C., Kern, A., Eriksson, I., Ziros, P., Kay, D., Miagostovich, M., Vargha, M., Allard, A., Vantarakis, A., Wyn-Jones, P., Bofill-Mas, S. and Girones, R. (2014). Application of human and animal viral microbial source tracking tools in fresh and marine waters from five different geographical areas. Water Res., 59: 119-129.
Sabino, R., Veríssimo, C., Cunha, M.A., Wergikoski, B., Ferreira, F.C., Rodrigues, R., Parada, H., Falcão, L., Rosado, L., Pinheiro, C., Paixão, E. and Brandão, J. (2011). Pathogenic fungi: An unacknowledged risk at coastal resorts? New insights on microbiological sand quality in Portugal. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 62: 1506-1511.
Schoen, M.E. and Ashbolt, N.J. (2010). Assessing pathogen risk to swimmers at non-sewage impacted recreational beaches. Environ. Sci. Technol., 44: 2286-2291.
Scott, T.M., Jenkins, T.M., Lukasik, J. and Rose, J.B. (2005). Potential use of a host associated molecular marker in Enterococcus faecium as an index of human fecal pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39: 283-287.
Searcy, R.T., Taggart, M., Gold, M. and Boehm, A.B. (2018). Implementation of an automated beach water quality nowcast system at ten California oceanic beaches. J. Environ. Manage., 223: 633-643.
Shah, A.H., Abdelzaher, A.M., Phillips, M., Hernandez, R., Solo-Gabriele, H.M., Kish, J., Scorzetti, G., Fell, G.W., Diaz, M.R., Scott, T.M., Lukasik, J., Harwood, V.J., McQuaig, S., Sinigalliano, C.D., Gidley, M.L., Wanless, D., Ager, A., Lui, J., Stewart, J.R., Plano, L.R.W. and Fleming, L.E. (2011). Indicator microbes correlate with pathogenic bacteria, yeasts and helminthes in sand at a subtropical recreational beach site. J. Appl. Microbiol., 110: 1571-1583.
Shanks, O.C., Atikovic, E., Blackwood, A.D., Lu, J., Noble, R.T., Santo Domingo, J., Seifring, S., Sivaganesan, M. and Haugland, R.A. (2008). Quantitative PCR for detection and enumeration of genetic markers for bovine fecal pollution. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 74(3): 745-752.
Shanks, O.C., Kelty, C.A., Sivaganesan, M., Varma, M. and Haugland, R.A. (2009). Quantitative PCR for genetic markers of human fecal pollution. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 75(17): 5507-5513.
Shibata, T. and Solo-Gabriele, H.M. (2012). Quantitative microbial risk assessment of human illness from exposure to marine beach sand. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46: 2799-2805.
Skalbeck, J.D., Kinzelman, J.L. and Mayer, G.C. (2010). Fecal indicator organism density in beach sands: impact of sediment grain size, uniformity, and hydrologic factors
on surface water loading. J. Gt. Lakes Res. 36 (4): 707-714.
Soller, J.A., Bartrand, T., Ashbolt, N.J., Ravenscroft, J. and Wade T.J. (2010a). Estimating the primary etiologic agents in recreational freshwaters impacted by human sources of fecal contamination. Water Res., 44: 4736-4747.
Soller, J.A., Schoen, M.E., Bartrand, T., Ravenscroft, J.E. and Ashbolt, N.J. (2010b). Estimated human health risks from exposure to recreational waters impacted by human and non-human sources of fecal contamination. Water Res., 44: 4674-4691.
Soller, J.A., Schoen, M.E., Varghese, A., Ichida, A.M., Boehm, A.B., Eftim, S., Ashbolt, N.J. and Ravenscroft, J.E. (2014). Human health risk implications of multiple sources of fecal indicator bacteria in a recreational waterbody. Water Res., 66: 254-264.
Soller, J.A., Bartrand, T., Ravenscroft, J., Molina, M., Whelan, G., Schoen, M. and Ashbolt, N. (2015). Estimated human health risks from recreational exposures to stormwater runoff containing animal fecal material. Environmental Modelling Software, 72: 21-32.
Soller, J.A., Eftim, S., Wade, T.J., Ichida, A.M., Clancy, J.L., Johnson, T.B., Schwab, K., Ramirez-Toro, G., Nappier, S. and Ravenscroft, J.E. (2016). Use of quantitative microbial risk assessment to improve interpretation of a recreational water epidemiological study. Microbial Risk Anal., 1: 2-11.
Soller, J.A., Schoen, M.E., Steele, J.A., Griffith, J.F. and Schiff, K.C. (2017). Incidence of gastrointestinal illness following wet weather recreational exposures: Harmonization of quantitative microbial risk assessment with an epidemiologic investigation of surfers. Water Res., 121: 280-289.
Staley, C., Kaiser, T., Lobos, A., Ahmed, W., Harwood, V.J., Brown, C.M. and Sadowsky, M.J. (2018a). Application of SourceTracker for accurate identification of fecal pollution in recreational freshwater: a double-blinded study. Environ. Sci. Technol., 52: 4207-4217.
Staley, Z.R., Robinson, C. and Edge, T.A. (2016). Comparison of the occurrence and survival of fecal indicator bacteria in recreational sand between urban beach, playground and sandbox settings in Toronto, Ontario. Sci. Total Environ., 541: 520-527.
Staley, Z.R., Boyd, R.J., Shum, P. and Edge, T.A. (2018b). Microbial source tracking using quantitative and digital PCR to identify sources of fecal contamination in stormwater, river water, and beach water in a Great Lakes Area of Concern. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 84(20): e01634-18.
Stoeckel, D.M., Mathes, M.V., Hyer, K.E., Hagedorn, C., Kator, H., Lukasik, J., O'Brien, T.L., Fenger, T.W., Samadpour, M., Strickler, K.M. and Wiggins, B.A. (2004). Comparison of seven protocols to identify fecal contamination sources using Escherichia coli. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38: 6109-6117.
Stoeckel, D.M. (2005). Selection and application of microbial source tracking tools for water-quality investigations. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 43 pp. Techniques and Methods 2-A3. Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/2005/tm2a3/pdf/Book2_Collection%20of%20Environmental%20Data.pdf
Sunger, N., Hamilton, K.A., Morgan, P.M., and Haas, C.N. (2019). Comparison of pathogen-derived 'total risk' with indicator-based correclations for recreational (swimming) exposure. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26: 30614-30624.
Symonds, E.M., Sinigalliano, C., Gidley, M., Ahmed, W., McQuaig-Ulrich, S.M. and Breitbart, M. (2016). Fecal pollution along the southeastern coast of Florida and insight into the use of pepper mild mottle virus as an indicator. J. Appl. Microbiol., 121: 1469-1481.
Thapaliya, D., Dalman, M., Kadariya, J., Little, K., Mansell, V., Taha, M.Y., Grenier, D. and Smith, T.C. (2017). Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus in good feces from state parks in Northeast Ohio. EcoHealth, 14: 303-309.
Torres-Bejarano, F., González-Márquez, L.C., Díaz-Solano, B., Torregroza-Espinosa, A.C. and Cantero-Rodelo, R. (2018). Effects of beach tourists on bathing water and sand quality at Puerto Velero, Colombia. Environ. Dev. Sustain., 20(1): 255-269.
Tran, N.H., Yew-Hoong Gin, K. and Ngo, H.H. (2015). Fecal pollution source tracking toolbox for identification, evaluation and characterization of fecal contamination in receiving urban surface waters and groundwater. Sci. Total Environ., 538: 38-57.
Unno, T., Staley, C., Brown, C.M., Han, D., Sadowsky, M.J. and Hur, H. (2018). Fecal pollution: new trends and challenges in microbial source tracking using next-generation sequencing. Environ. Microbiol., 20(9): 3132-3140.
U.S. EPA (2005a). The EMPACT Beaches Project: results from a study on microbiological monitoring in recreational waters. National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
U.S. EPA (2005b). Microbial source tracking guide. Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. 133 pp. (EPA/600-R-05-064).
U.S. EPA (2008). Great Lakes beach sanitary survey user manual. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Document Number: EPA-823-B-06-001.
U.S. EPA (2010). Sampling and consideration of variability (temporal and spatial) for monitoring of recreational waters. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Document Number: EPA-820-F-12-058.
U.S. EPA (2012). Recreational water quality criteria. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Document Number: EPA-820-B-13-001.
U.S. EPA (2013). Marine beach sanitary survey user manual. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Document Number: EPA-820-B-13-001.
U.S. EPA (2016). Six key steps for developing and using predictive tools at your beach. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Document Number: EPA-820-R-16-001.
U.S. EPA (2019a). Method 1696: Characterization of Human Fecal Pollution in Water by HF183/BacR287 TaqMan®Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) Assay. U.S. EPA Office of Water. EPA 821-R-19-002. 56 p.
U.S. EPA (2019b). Method 1697: Characterization of Human Fecal Pollution in Water by HumM2 TaqMan®Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) Assay. U.S. EPA Office of Water. EPA 821-R-19-003. 56 p.
Vergara, G.G.R.V., Rose, J.B. and Gin, K.Y.H. (2016). Risk assessment of noroviruses and human adenoviruses in recreational surface waters. Water Res., 103: 276-282.
Vogel, L.J., O'Carroll, D.M., Edge, T.A. and Robinson, C.E. (2016). Release of Escherichia coli from foreshore sand and pore water during intensified wave conditions at a recreational beach. Environ. Sci. Technol., 50(11): 5676-5684.
Vogel, L.J., Edge, T.A., O'Carroll, D.M., Solo-Gabriele, H.M., Kushnir, C.S.E. and Robinson, C.E. (2017). Evaluation of methods to sample fecal indicator bacteria in foreshore sand and pore water at freshwater beaches. Water Res., 121: 204-212.
Weidhaas, J.L., Macbeth, T.W., Olsen, R.L., Sadowsky, M.J., Norat, D. and Harwood, V.J. (2010). Identification of a Brevibacterium marker gene specific to poultry litter and development of a quantitative PCR assay. J. Appl. Microbiol., 109: 334-347.
Whitman, R.L. and Nevers, M.B. (2003). Foreshore sand as a source of Escherichia coli in nearshore water of a Lake Michigan beach. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 69(9): 5555-5562.
Whitman, R.L., Shively, D.A., Pawlik, H., Nevers, M.B. and Byappanahalli, M.N. (2003). Occurrence of Escherichia coli and enterococci in Cladophora (Chlorophyta) in nearshore water and beach sand of Lake Michigan. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 69: 4714-4719.
Whitman, R.L. and Nevers, M.B. (2004). Escherichia coli sampling reliability at a frequently closed Chicago beach: monitoring and management implications. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38: 4241-4246.
Whitman, R.L., Nevers, M.B. and Byappanahalli, M.N. (2006). Examination of the watershed-wide distribution of Escherichia coli along Southern Lake Michigan: an integrated approach. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72(11): 7301-7310.
Whitman, R.L., Przybyla-Kelly, K., Shively, D.A., Nevers, M.B. and Byappanahalli, M.N. (2009). Hand-mouth transfer and potential for exposure to E.coli and F+ coliphage in beach sand, Chicago, Illinois. J. Water Health, 7(4): 623-629.
Whitman, R.L., Harwood, V.J., Edge, T.A., Nevers, M.B., Byappanahalli, M., Vijayavel, K., Brandão, J., Sadowsky, M.J., Wheeler Alm, E., Crowe, A, Ferguson, D., Ge, Z., Halliday, E., Kinzelman, J., Kleinheinz, G., Przybyla-Kelly, K., Staley, C., Staley, Z. and Solo-Gabriele, H.M. (2014). Microbes in beach sands: integrating environment, ecology and public health. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol., 13: 329-368.
WHO (1999). Health-based monitoring of recreational waters: the feasibility of a new approach (the "Annapolis Protocol"). Outcome of an expert consultation, Annapolis, MD, co-sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (WHO/SDE/WDH/99.1). Available at https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66477
WHO (2003). Guidelines for safe recreational water environments. Vol. 1. Coastal and fresh waters. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2003/9241545801.pdf
WHO (2004). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 3rd edition. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO (2009). Addendum to the guidelines for safe recreational water environments, Vol. 1. Coastal and fresh waters. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO (2021). Guidelines on recreational water quality. Volume 1: coastal and fresh waters. World Health Organization, Geneva.
Wiggins, B.A. (1996). Discriminant analysis of antibiotic resistance patterns in fecal streptococci, a method to differentiate human and animal sources of fecal pollution in natural waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 62: 3997-4002.
Williamson, D.A., Ralley, W.E., Bourne, A., Armstrong, N., Fortin, R. and Hughes, C.E. (2004). Principal factors affecting Escherichia coli at Lake Winnipeg beaches, Manitoba, Canada - interim report. Manitoba Water Stewardship, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 18 pp. (Manitoba Water Stewardship Report No. 2004-01).
Wong, K., Fong, T., Bibby, K. and Molina, M. (2012). Application of enteric viruses for fecal pollution source tracking in environmental waters. Environ. Int., 45: 151-164.
Yamahara, K.M., Layton, B.A., Santoro, A.E. and Boehm, A.B. (2007). Beach sands along the California coast are diffuse sources of fecal bacteria to coastal waters. Environ. Sci. Technol., 41: 4515-4521.
Yamahara, K.M., Walters, S.P. and Boehm, A.B. (2009). Growth of enterococci in unaltered, unseeded beach sands subjected to tidal wetting. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 75(6): 1517-1524.
Yamahara, K.M., Sassoubre, L.M., Goodwin, K.D. and Boehm, A.B. (2012). Occurrence and persistence of bacterial pathogens and indicator organisms in beach sand along the California coast. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 78(6): 1733-1745.