Bird conservation strategy for region 5: Northern Pacific rainforest, chapter 7

Section 2: Conservation needs by habitat

The following sections provide more detailed information on priority species, their threats and objectives within each of the broad habitat classes that occur in BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon. Where appropriate, habitat information is provided at a finer scale than the broad habitat categories in order to coincide with other land management exercises in the region. Note that in this strategy, all areas presented below are expressed as a percentage of the terrestrial area of BCR 5 in British Columbia, unless otherwise stated. Some species do not appear in the threats table because their low level threats have not been assigned objectives or actions and/or identified threats are addressed in the Widespread Issues section of the strategy.

In this strategy, a number of priority species which once bred in or around the lower Fraser Valley and southeast Vancouver Island no longer do so; they occur only as occasional non-breeding individuals (Horned Lark (strigata), federally Endangered and provincially Red-listed; Lewis’s Woodpecker, federally Threatened and provincially Red-listed; and Western Bluebird, provincially Red-listed); or as small wintering populations (Western Meadowlark, provincially Red-listed). In this strategy we have identified threats that likely contributed to these species’ declines, and recommend actions which address these threats. While such actions may not immediately benefit these species within the BCR, they will lay the groundwork for re-establishing suitable habitat, a necessity for the success of any future reintroductions of breeding populations to be successful.

Coniferous

Coniferous forests (defined as habitat where over 75% of tree basal area is coniferous trees) are the dominant landcover of BCR 5, covering over 55% of the terrestrial area of the BCR (Martell 2005; Fig. 8). The temperate coastal forests are dominated by western redcedar, western hemlock, Douglas-fir, and Sitka spruce. At higher elevations yellow-cedar, mountain hemlock and amabilis fir occur (B.C. Ministry of Forests 1997, 1999b). Mild, wet winters allow conifers to grow year-round, and the rarity of natural stand-initiating disturbances means that individual trees can live for centuries or longer and reach massive dimensions. In BCR 5, coniferous forests are used by 31 priority species (29 landbirds and two waterbirds; Table 5). One priority species, Lewis’s Woodpecker, no longer breeds in the region and occurs only as occasional, non-breeding individuals.

The primary threat to priority species in coniferous habitats is the loss of habitat and key habitat attributes to timber harvest (Fig. 9). Habitat is also lost to urban and industrial development. Introduced and invasive species also threaten priority species via predation, competition, and habitat degradation. Key actions to address these threats include the management of timber harvest to maintain biodiversity and wildlife values, protection of key areas of coniferous forest habitat, and control or eradication of introduced species (Table 6).

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

^a The interim population objective is to increase the numbers of birds in the BCR, with a future goal of re-establishing a breeding population.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in coniferous habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in coniferous habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in coniferous habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species includes competition from European Starling, and effects of introduced mammals (raccoons, squirrels, rats, deer) on coastal islands. 8.2 Problematic native species includes effects of locally overabundant native deer and competition/predation by the Barred Owl. 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to effects of pesticide use.

^b Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Mixed Wood

Mixed-wood habitats (where coniferous tree basal area is less than 75% of total tree basal area) occur throughout BCR 5, typically within more extensive coniferous forest wherever disturbance or soils have allowed a substantial deciduous component to develop (Fig. 10). Fifteen (15) priority species (all landbirds) have been identified as using mixed-wood habitats (Table 7).

Threats to priority species in mixed wood habitats are similar to those in coniferous forest, with loss of habitat and key habitat attributes to forestry and urban/industrial development being the primary threats (Fig. 11). Competition with, and predation by, introduced and invasive species also presents risks. Key actions to address these threats include the management of timber harvest to maintain biodiversity and wildlife values, protection of key areas of habitat, and research into potentially problematic predators and competitors to quantify threats and identify potential mitigation strategies (Table 8).

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in mixed wood habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in mixed wood habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in mixed wood habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 8.2 Problematic native species includes competition with House Finch and predation by Barred Owl and Bald Eagles. 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to pesticide use.

^c Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Shrub and early successional

Shrub and early successional habitats are transient, occurring where disturbance (either natural or anthropogenic) has removed the tree cover and the vegetation is dominated by shrubby, early seral forms (Fig. 12). Five priority species, all landbirds, were identified as using this habitat type (Table 9).

The primary threats to priority species in this habitat type are the loss or degradation of habitat due to development or forestry activity, and degradation of habitat due to overbrowsing by deer (Fig. 13). While new patches of habitat are created by timber harvest, they are typically managed for accelerated conifer regrowth, which may reduce their suitability for various priority species (Betts et al. 2010). Key actions to address these threats include management of timber production and harvest to maintain sufficient high-quality early seral habitat on the landscape, and control of overabundant and/or introduced deer populations (Table 10).

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in shrub and early successional habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in shrub and early successional habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in shrub and early successional habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 8.2 Problematic native species refers primarily to effects of locally overabundant deer. 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to effects of pesticide use.

^d Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Herbaceous

The herbaceous habitat class includes agricultural areas such as pastures and crops, artificial grasslands such as airports and parks, and natural grasslands, such as Garry Oak meadows (Fig. 14).

Agricultural lands cover approximately 0.7% of BCR 5, and are largely restricted to the low elevation plateaus and floodplains of the lower Fraser Valley and the east coast of Vancouver Island (Martell 2005). Grasslands and agricultural areas are used by 25 priority species in BCR 5 (14 landbirds, 9 waterfowl and 2 shorebirds; Table 11). Birds using grassland and agricultural areas in BCR 5 are highly threatened, as 68% of the priority species using these habitats are considered at risk, either federally or provincially. Three priority species--Horned Lark (strigata), Western Bluebird and Western Meadowlark--no longer breed in the region and occur only as occasional non-breeding individuals or small wintering populations. Primary threats to priority species in agricultural areas include loss of suitable habitat to urban/industrial development, agricultural intensification and changes to unsuitable crop types (i.e., greenhouses, berries), and exposure to pesticides (Fig. 15). Key actions to address these threats include increasing the use of beneficial management practices in agriculture to preserve biodiversity and wildlife values, minimizing use of pesticides through integrated pest management, and use of conservation covenants and other stewardship agreements to preserve key habitat types such as pastures and hayfields on the landscape (Table 12).

Garry Oak

Garry Oak, a unique ecosystem that occurs nowhere else in Canada, is restricted to the drier rain-shadow areas of Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands (B.C. Ministry of Forests 1999a). Garry Oak trees form an open canopy over a diverse ground cover of grasses, wildflowers, herbs and endemic mosses. This fire-maintained system is highly imperiled. Ninety percent (90%) of the original extent of Garry Oak parkland has been lost to agriculture or urban/industrial development. For example, on Vancouver Island only 1,589 ha remains today of approximately 15,250 ha of Garry Oak present pre-European settlement. Much of what remains is highly fragmented and degraded by numerous invasive plant species; fire suppression also prevents regeneration of remaining Garry Oak habitats (Martell 2005; Lea 2006).

Five priority species, all landbirds, were identified as using Garry Oak habitats (Table 11). These priority species are not restricted solely to Garry Oak habitat, and typically occur (or occurred) more broadly throughout open forest (e.g., Cassin’s Vireo, Hutton’s Vireo) and grassland/agricultural areas (e.g., Western Bluebird) within the Georgia Basin. However Garry Oak habitats remain important to these priority bird species, and are critical to a wide diversity of plant and invertebrate species. Two of the five priority bird species that use Garry Oak habitat, Lewis’s Woodpecker and Western Bluebird, no longer breed in the region and now occur only as occasional non-breeding individuals.

The primary threats to priority species that use Garry Oak habitats include historical and current loss and degradation of habitat due to urban and industrial development, historical and current loss of nesting sites due to timber cutting, competition with invasive and introduced species, and habitat degradation and loss due to fire suppression (Fig. 15). Key actions to address these threats include the protection and restoration of remaining Garry Oak habitat, periodic burning of Garry Oak habitat to maintain native ground cover and prevent conifer encroachment, and control of invasive species (Table 12).

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

^e The interim population objective is to increase the numbers of birds in the BCR, with a future goal of re-establishing a breeding population.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in herbaceous habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in herbaceous habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in herbaceous habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals refers primarily to lead poisoning of waterfowl from ingestion of lead shot, but also includes hunting and illegal harvest. 8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species  and 8.2 Problematic native species includes predation by domestic cats and competition with native and introduced species (House Wren, House Sparrow, European Starling) for nesting cavities. 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to effects of pesticide use.

^f Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Urban

The urban habitat class consists of urban, suburban and industrial areas where developments such as buildings, roads, parking lots and other impervious surfaces are common (Fig. 16). Urban areas cover 1.1% of the terrestrial area of BCR 5 (Martell 2005). BCR 5 contains Vancouver, which is Canada’s third-largest urban area in terms of population size (population 2,117,000 as of 2006; Statistics Canada 2008). The majority of British Columbia’s population (over 3 million; Statistics Canada 2008) lives in or near Vancouver, Victoria, and the east coast of Vancouver Island. Only four priority species were identified as using urban habitats in BCR 5: Barn Owl, Barn Swallow, Cooper’s Hawk, and Northwestern Crow (Table 13).

Primary threats to priority species in urban habitats include loss of foraging habitat and nesting sites due to continuing development, loss of prey and secondary poisoning from pesticide use, and mortality due to collisions with vehicles and buildings (Fig. 17). No threats were identified for the Northwestern Crow. Key actions to address these threats include managing landscapes to provide habitat for Cooper’s Hawks and Barn Owls, increasing public awareness of Barn Swallows to reduce persecution, and reducing use of pesticides. Conservation objectives and recommended actions relating to collision mortality and pesticide poisoning are presented separately in the Widespread Issues section (Table 14).

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in urban habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in urban habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in urban habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals refers to removal of nests from buildings, and 7.3 Other ecosystem modifications refers to loss of nesting sites.

^g Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Wetland

The wetland habitat class includes bogs, swamps, marshes, fens, and shallow open water (largely non-vegetated surface, but < 2 m deep; Fig. 18). These areas cover about 1.5% of BCR 5 (Martell 2005). However, their small extent belies their importance, as wetlands are extremely diverse and productive habitats. Fourteen (14) priority species (6 waterbirds, 5 waterfowl, and 3 landbirds) were identified as using wetland habitats in BCR 5 (Table 15).

Large quantities of wetland habitat have been lost in the past due to drainage or filling for agriculture or urban and industrial development. Agriculture, urban development and forestry can also negatively impact remaining wetlands by altering local hydrology. Pressures have been particularly intense in the lower Fraser Valley. For example, approximately 80% of the wetlands in the Greater Vancouver Regional District had been lost to agriculture or urban development by 1930, and gradual losses continue today (Eriksson et al. 2009). Species using wetland habitat are threatened by historical and ongoing loss of habitat to urban/industrial development and agricultural conversion, and eutrophication of wetlands (Fig. 19). Some species are also threatened by exposure to environmental contaminants such as pesticides and lead. Key actions to address these threats include avoiding further loss of wetland habitat to development, and increasing the use of beneficial management practices for biodiversity and bird conservation in agriculture, including the use of integrated pest management to minimize use of pesticides and establishment and maintenance of suitable vegetated buffers to maintain water quality (Table 16).

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in wetland habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in wetland habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in wetland habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals refers to lead poisoning of waterfowl due to ingestion of lead shot, 8.2 Problematic native species refers to competition with Red-winged Blackbird and predation by Bald Eagles, and 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents includes wetland eutrophication and effects of pesticide use.

^h Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Waterbodies, snow and ice

Freshwater

The waterbodies, snow and ice habitat class includes standing and flowing water such as reservoirs, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, as well as areas where snow and/or ice covers the ground for the majority of the year (Fig. 20). Permanent snow and ice are not considered bird habitat per se in BCR 5, so the following section focuses on reservoirs, lakes, ponds, streams and rivers.

Freshwater waterbodies cover approximately 2% of BCR 5 (Martell 2005). Ten (10) priority species were identified as using freshwater habitat, including 3 landbirds, 3 waterbirds and 4 waterfowl (Table 17).

Primary threats to priority species using freshwater habitats include loss and degradation of habitat due to urban and industrial development, changes in hydrology and water quality due to large-scale timber harvest and hydroelectric development, and exposure to environmental contaminants such as pesticides and lead. Human disturbance also reduces habitat suitability (Fig. 21). Key actions to address these threats include the establishment and maintenance of naturally-vegetated buffers around waterbodies to maintain wildlife habitat, management of timber harvest and associated activities to avoid runoff, and the careful siting and management of hydroelectric developments to maintain natural hydrological regimes (Table 18). Creation of restricted-access buffer zones around key areas and increasing public awareness of the effects of human disturbance on birds would also be beneficial. Objectives and recommended actions to address environmental contaminants (pesticides, PCBs, lead, other heavy metals, etc.) are presented separately in the Widespread Issues section.

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in freshwater habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in freshwater habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in freshwater habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals includes hunting mortality and poisoning from lead shot. 5.4 Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources refers to lead poisoning from sinkers/jigs. 9.2 Industrial and military effluents refers to heavy metals and PCBs. 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to pesticides.

ⁱ Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Marine

The waterbodies, snow and ice habitat class also includes oceanic habitats. BCR 5 encompasses the Pacific Ocean out to the limit of Canada’s exclusive economic zone, and this marine area is represented by the Strait of Georgia, Southern Shelf, Northern Shelf and Offshore Pacific Marine Biogeographic Units. Marine habitats in BCR 5 range from nearshore habitats to pelagic waters beyond the continental shelf. Nearshore conditions vary from the low productivity of the northern fjords to the highly productive Vancouver Island shelf and Strait of Georgia. Offshore areas also include areas of high productivity around upwellings near the continental self break. Both nearshore and offshore habitats are important for commercial fishing and include major transportation corridors for British Columbia’s busy shipping industry (Martell 2005). Very little (0.5%) of Canada’s Pacific ocean is currently protected, and most of the existing protected area is shallow waters adjacent to the coast (B.C. Ministry of the Environment 2006). Forty-two priority species (33 waterbirds, 7 waterfowl, and 1 shorebird) were identified as using marine habitats in BCR 5 (Table 19). Twenty-three of these (56%) are considered at risk, either provincially or federally.

Major threats to priority species in Canada’s Pacific Ocean include oil spills, potential impacts of commercial fisheries on the availability of prey, entanglement in fishing gear, ingestion of plastic debris, and changes in productivity and altered oceanic food webs due to climate change (Fig. 22). Key actions to address these threats include the use of avian bycatch mitigation measures in longline and gillnet fisheries, research to determine the effects of commercial fisheries on seabirds and consideration for marine birds in fisheries management, and reducing the amount of plastic waste in the marine environment (Table 20). Further information on the expected effects of climate change in BCR 5 can be found in the Widespread Issues section, as well as objectives and actions associated with oil spills and climate change.

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows. At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC, or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in marine habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in marine habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in marine habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: The overall rolled-up magnitude of the threat is shown at the end of each bar. Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 5.4 Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources refers primarily to fisheries bycatch and effects of commercial fisheries on prey stocks. 9.2 Industrial and military effluents includes oil spills and contaminants such as heavy metals and PCBs. 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to pesticides, and 9.4 Garbage and solid waste refers to ingestion of plastic debris.

^j Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Coastal

BCR 5 includes all 29,000 km of British Columbia’s coastline (Fig. 23). In BCR 5, the coastal habitat class encompasses a wide variety of shoreline habitats, from steep, rugged cliffs and exposed rocky islands to sandy beaches, estuaries, saltmarshes, and mudflats. BCR 5’s many remote islands and seaside cliffs provide nesting habitat for over 5 million seabirds at approximately 500 sites (Martell 2005), and rocky shorelines and coastal waters are used by a wide variety of shorebirds, waterbirds and seaducks. While BCR 5’s shoreline is dominated by steep rocky shores and deep fjords, there are also over 440 estuaries, occupying about 2.3% of BCR 5’s coastline (Austin et al. 2008). These estuaries provide important habitat for many waterfowl, waterbirds and shorebirds. Mudflats, sand flats, beaches and dunes provide critical stopover habitat for millions of migrating shorebirds, particularly the Fraser River estuary, which is a site of hemispheric importance under the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, an Important Bird Area, and contains a Ramsar site. The diversity of coastal habitats and their importance to birds in BCR 5 is reflected in the fact that almost half of all priority species in BCR 5 (68 of 139, or 49%; Table 21) use coastal habitat, including landbirds (11 species), waterbirds (22), shorebirds (17) and waterfowl (18). Thirty of these (44%) are considered at risk, either federally or provincially. One species, the Horned Lark (strigata; federally Endangered), no longer has a breeding population in BCR 5 and occurs only as occasional non-breeding individuals.

Many species are threatened by the loss of important breeding, wintering, and stopover habitat due to development of coastal areas (Fig. 24). Some regions of BCR 5’s coasts are under intense development pressure, particularly the Strait of Georgia. Approximately 23% of the nearshore habitat around the Georgia Basin--which includes BCR 5’s most important estuarine and shorebird stopover habitat--has been urbanized, and much of the estuarine habitat has been dyked, drained, and converted to agriculture (Austin et al. 2008). Sea-level rise due to climate change will have negative impacts in coming years on mudflats, sandflats, beaches, saltmarshes, and estuaries, and the species reliant on these habitats. The Fraser River delta is particularly at risk, as valuable tidal habitat will be squeezed between the rising waters and coastal dykes; significant amounts of habitat will inevitably be lost (Bornhold 2008, Thomson et al. 2008).

Birds are also threatened by excessive human disturbance at important breeding, stopover, and wintering sites. Invasive species pose a number of significant threats, from degradation of mudflats due to invasive Spartina to the potential for introduced predators on historically predator-free nesting islands to decimate entire seabird colonies. Priority species in coastal environments are also threatened by the potential for catastrophic oil spills, and other environmental contaminants such as plastic waste, PCBs, lead, and pesticides.

Key actions to address these threats include the protection of key areas of coastal habitat, the eradication or control of invasive species, including removal of all introduced predators from seabird nesting colonies, and reducing the amount of plastic waste in the environment (Table 22). Increasing public awareness of the effects of disturbance on priority species and establishing/maintaining buffer zones around bird colonies and key foraging, stopover and roosting sites would also be beneficial. Conservation objectives and recommended actions addressing effects of climate change and environmental contaminants such as oil, lead, PCBs and pesticides are presented in the Widespread Issues section.

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in coastal habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in coastal habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in coastal habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals includes hunting, illegal harvest, and lead poisoning from ingestion of lead shot. 7.3 Other ecosystem modifications refers to loss of nesting sites. 8. 1 Invasive non-native/alien species includes effects of introduced mammalian predators on seabird colonies and Spartina invasion of mudflats. 8.2 Problematic native species includes disturbance and predation by Bald Eagles. 9.2 Industrial and military effluents includes oil spills and PCBs, 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to pesticides, and 9.4 Garbage and solid waste refers to ingestion of plastic debris.

^k Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Riparian

Riparian areas occur adjacent to standing or flowing water where the vegetation is influenced by the presence of water and is distinct from adjacent uplands (no map is available). Riparian areas may be treed, shrubby, or herbaceous, depending on site conditions. Riparian areas are geographically restricted and form only a small part of the overall landscape. In BCR 5, there is approximately 168,500 linear km of riparian habitat, covering 81,000 ha (or < 0.1% of the BCR; Martell 2005). Despite their small representation, riparian areas are important in terms of biodiversity. Riparian areas are typically used as breeding, wintering, and stopover habitat by many species. They also serve as corridors connecting habitats and facilitating wildlife movement. Of the 12 priority species that are found in riparian habitats in BCR 5 (Table 23), there are 9 landbirds and 3 waterfowl.

Birds using riparian habitats are threatened by the loss of habitat and key habitat attributes to urban/industrial development and forestry (Fig. 25). In some areas, species are also threatened by habitat degradation due to overbrowsing by introduced/overabundant deer. Key actions to address these threats include the protection of riparian habitats, management of timber harvest to maintain important habitat attributes such as large, cavity-bearing trees, and control of introduced/overabundant deer populations (Table 24).

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C.; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in riparian habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in riparian habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in riparian habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR 5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions. 8.2 Problematic native species refers to effects of locally overabundant deer and predation by Barred Owls. 9.2 Industrial and military effluents includes PCB and mercury exposure, and 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents refers to pesticides.

^l Priority species not mentioned in this table are absent for one of the following reasons: 1) no identified threats in this habitat, 2) identified threats are discussed in the Widespread Issues section, 3) identified threats in this habitat are of low magnitude.

Alpine

Alpine habitats occur at the highest elevations of the Coast Mountains in BCR 5 (Fig. 26). Areas classified as alpine begin at about 1,600 m elevation along the south coast of British Columbia and at somewhat lower elevations to the north. About 36% of BCR 5's terrestrial area is considered alpine (Martell 2005). Most vegetation within alpine areas consists of dwarf shrubs, grasses, forbs and lichens. Trees typically exist only as stunted forms at the lowest elevations of the alpine zone (BC Ministry of Forests 1998).

Alpine areas provide both breeding and migration habitat to a number of bird species, though only one priority species--the White-tailed Ptarmigan (saxitallis)--was identified in alpine habitat in BCR 5 (Table 25). Two threats were identified for ptarmigan: loss of habitat to development (e.g., ski hills), and loss/alteration of habitat due to climate change (Fig. 27). Loss of habitat to development was ranked Low, and as this threat affects only one priority species, conservation objectives and recommended actions were not developed for this threat. Effects of climate change (including effects on alpine habitats) and related conservation objectives are presented in the Widespread Issues section.

Note: Reasons for inclusion in the priority species list are as follows:
At Risk: the species is assessed as either Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC or SARA, or the species is or the species is on the Red or Blue lists in B.C; CC: the species meets conservation concern criteria for its bird group; S: the species meets stewardship criteria for its bird group; NAWMP: the species has NAWMP priority of Moderate-High, High or Highest in the BCR.

Each bar represents the percent of the total number of threats identified in each threat sub-category in alpine habitat (for example, if 100 threats were identified in total for all priority species in alpine habitat, and 10 of those threats were in the category 1.1 Housing and urban areas, the bar on the graph would represent this as 10%). The bars are divided to show the distribution of Low (L), Medium (M), High (H) and Very High (VH) rankings of individual threats within each threat sub-category. For example, the same threat may have been ranked H for one species and L for another; the shading illustrates the proportion of L, M, H and VH rankings in the sub-category).  The overall magnitude of the sub-threat in alpine habitat is shown at the end of each bar (also presented in Table 4. Relative magnitude of identified threats to priority species within BCR5 Pacific and Yukon by threat category and broad habitat class).

Note: Threats of all magnitudes are included, although low ranked threats affecting only a single species were not assigned conservation objectives or recommended actions.