Imminent threat assessment: Spring Salamander (Adirondack / Appalachian population)

Official title: Imminent threat assessment for the Spring Salamander (Adirondack / Appalachian population)

Objective

On November 30, 2018, a Canadian citizen, wrote to the Minister of Environment and Climate Change asking that a recommendation be made to the Governor in Council to issue an emergency order for the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian population (AA), on the grounds that the residential development project at Mount Foster, Quebec posed an imminent threat to the species.

Pursuant to section 80 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA), the competent minister must make a recommendation to the Governor in Council to issue an emergency order if the minister is of the opinion that the species faces imminent threats to its survival or recovery. The Minister of Environment and Climate Change is the competent minister under SARA for the Spring Salamander.

This imminent threat assessment was developed to help the Minister form an opinion on whether the Spring Salamander (AA) is facing imminent threats to its survival or recovery, in relation to residential development activities at Mount Foster, Québec. The assessment takes into account the management objective set out in the final version (2014) of the management plan for the species, which is “to maintain and, if possible, increase the abundance of the subpopulations identified by COSEWIC and the species' index of area of occupancy.” It also considers the best available information on the species’ biology and ecology and the threats to its survival or recovery. Also included in this document are a description of the Domaine mont Foster residential development project and its status, as well as the legislation pertaining to protection of the species at Mount Foster.

The assessment is divided into two parts:

1. background: this part provides background information on the species’ status, biology and ecology, on the Domaine mont Foster residential development project and on the presence of other species at risk on the lands covered by this project
2. assessment of the imminence of the threats: this part describes the legislation applicable to the conservation of species at risk in the context of a residential development project in Quebec. It also presents the project status and provides an assessment of the threats to the survival or recovery of the species Canada, in particular the subpopulation found at Mount Foster

1. Background

1.1 Information on the species’ status, biology and ecology

The Spring Salamander is a large stream salamander. In Canada, the species is found only in southern Quebec, in the Appalachian Ecoregion. It occurs in isolated subpopulations in mountain ranges separated by valleys or other natural or artificial barriers to the species’ dispersal.

The species inhabits small, clear, cool, well-oxygenated streams characterized by rocky bottoms and the absence or near-absence of predator fish. Forests adjacent to these streams help maintain the biophysical attributes (temperature, moisture, water quality, availability of refuges, etc.) of suitable habitat for the species. Spring Salamanders disperse primarily along the stream corridor and seldom use terrestrial areas, as they require cool, moist conditions (e.g. rainy nights) for dispersal. 

The most serious threats to the species in Canada are residential, recreational/tourism and wind power development, along with groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial use.

In 2002, the Spring Salamander, considered a single designatable unit, was assessed as Special Concern by COSEWIC; it was listed as such in Schedule 1 of SARA in 2005. A management plan for the species was published in 2014. When the Spring Salamander was reassessed in 2011, COSEWIC determined that it should be split into two designatable units in Canada. The Adirondack / Appalachian population (AA), found in Quebec, was designated Threatened (COSEWIC 2011) and the Carolinian population, present in Ontario, was designated Extirpated (COSEWIC 2011). This designatable unit was reassessed in 2018 and designated Data Deficient since the validity of the historical observations was called into question (COSEWIC 2018).

On COSEWIC’s recommendation, the Spring Salamander (AA) was listed as Threatened on Schedule 1 of SARA in 2017. Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) began to develop the recovery strategy for the species in December 2018 and is expected to be finalized in April 2021. The Quebec government assessed the Spring Salamander (AA) as vulnerable in 2009 under the Act Respecting Threatened or Vulnerable Species.

1.2 Information on the Domaine mont Foster residential development project

Mount Foster straddles the municipalities of West Bolton (Montérégie region) and Saint-Étienne-de-Bolton (Estrie region). A residential development project has been under way on part of Mount Foster since 2006. The Domaine mont Foster project, which initially involved the construction of more than 70 dwellings, has been altered several times since it was first unveiled.

Around 2010, the project proponents Domaine mont Foster Inc. and Les Sommets Inverness Inc. secured provincial authorizations to begin site development work for the construction of some 70 dwellings in the municipalities of West Bolton and Saint-Étienne-de-Bolton. Because the conditions attached to these permits were not fully met, the regional county municipality (RCM) implemented an interim control bylaw, and the Quebec Department of Environment and the Fight Against Climate Change (MELCC) issued a stop work order and a request for remedial work in 2012. Following these events, the authorization to build houses was limited to 11 units, and the municipal council of the Municipality of West Bolton agreed not to change the existing bylaws without the consent of local residents. At present, all the authorizations required for the construction of single-family dwellings have been issued for 10 lots^{Footnote 1} (white lots in Figure 1). Based on an analysis of Google Earth images, forest clearing was carried out in about 20 zones totalling some 43,400 m² between 2010 and 2016, and four houses were built. These images also show that most of the road infrastructure has already been built.

According to information provided by the Municipality of West Bolton to the Minister of Environment and Climate Change on January 23, 2019, no work is currently underway in the project area (Figure 1). Discussions held between the municipality and the project proponents between February 2017 and June 2019 could lead to the construction of single-family homes on 14 additional lots, if the following conditions are met: (1) the vast majority of the Mount Foster area is protected under an agreement with the conservation organization; (2) a permanent and supervised public access on the summit of Mount Foster is maintained; and (3) any agreement that the municipality enters into is acceptable to the residents of West Bolton.

The first two conditions were met in September 2018, and an agreement-in-principle was reached between the project proponents and the conservation organization Appalachian Corridor, which would acquire, through purchases and donations, 211 hectares of land in the municipalities of West Bolton and Saint-Étienne-de-Bolton, which accounts for 83% of the area covered by the current project (Figure 1, dark green). The summit of Mount Foster is included in these areas, and public access would be maintained.^{Footnote 2} In order to meet the third condition, information sessions were held and residents were invited to vote on the project using a mail-in ballot. The ballots were counted on June 7, 2019, and 76% of the respondents voted in favour of the project.

After the vote, the project received all the necessary municipal authorizations, including bylaw changes allowing the construction of single-family homes on 16 additional lots (lots numbered 1-16 in Figure 1). Two lots, with a total area of 6 ha (lots 15 and 16 in Figure 1), consist of an ecological gift. This would bring the total conservation area to 217 ha and the housing project (lots in pale green and white in Figure 1) to about 30 ha, for a total of 24 houses, that is, 20 additional dwellings. The developed lots will also be subject to certain restrictions. For example, for a lot covering 10,000 m², only 1,500 m² can be cleared for home construction (Hébert 2019).

The work to be carried out also includes completing the road construction (primarily surfacing) and widening the trail connecting Summit Road to Paramount Road, so that it can serve as an emergency corridor (road marked Non-motorized trail and emergency corridor in Figure 1).

Figure 1. Concept drawing of the Domaine mont Foster project.

The green area surrounded by the red line includes the lots that are awaiting authorization (light green) and those set aside for conservation (dark green). The white lots have received all necessary authorizations.

From the Municipality of West Bolton’s website (mont Foster)

1.3 Other species at risk occurring on the lands covered by the project

According to the data used by ECCC, the Spring Salamander is the only species at risk (SARA Schedule 1 species) found at the Domaine mont Foster project site. In a letter dated August 6, 2019, the applicant stated that the Canada Warbler (Cardellina canadensis) occurs on the project site. The source of this information is not given, however, and according to the database from the Quebec breeding bird monitoring program (SOS-POP; version of May 10, 2019), the species has not been recorded there. There are nonetheless several valid records of this species within a 10 km radius of the site.

2. Assessment of the imminence of the threats

2.1 Legislative and regulatory measures governing the conservation of species at risk in connection with residential development projects in Quebec

In Quebec, four main laws give the province the legislative authority necessary to protect the Spring Salamander and its habitat.

Under the Act Respecting Threatened or Vulnerable Species (CQLR, c. E-12.01), the government can implement a policy for the protection and management of the Spring Salamander, which was designated vulnerable in October 2009. The Act Respecting the Conservation and Development of Wildlife (CQLR, c. C-61.1) sets out various prohibitions related to the conservation of wildlife resources, including threatened or vulnerable species. The laws prohibit, to varying degrees, the killing, injuring, harassing, capturing and taking of individuals of the Spring Salamander, the damaging and destruction of their residences and the destruction of their habitat on non-federal lands. However, unlike SARA, the provincial laws do not include the obligation to designate or protect the habitats necessary for the survival or recovery of a threatened or vulnerable species.

The Environment Quality Act (CQLR, c. Q-2) (EQA) governs the implementation of various projects from a sustainable development perspective. MELCC is responsible for exercising its discretion by authorizing or rejecting proposed projects for the construction, operation or production of goods or services, or an activity affecting environment quality, including biodiversity, which encompasses species at risk and their habitats. However, although threatened or vulnerable species and theirs habitat are taken into account in the analysis of project impacts and in decisions about the implementation of mitigation or compensation measures, the power to authorize the type of activities mentioned in the previous paragraph (e.g., through the issuance of permits or authorizations) is not subject to constraints similar to those provided for in SARA (i.e., mandatory pre-conditions, prescribed by acts and regulations). The Environment Quality Act can therefore provide a form of protection for critical habitats on non-federal lands by imposing binding conditions in the ministerial authorizations issued for development projects. The areas covered by protective measures are often small, however, and the decision to authorize activities that could destroy elements of the species’ critical habitat (e.g., issuance of permits or certificates of authorization) is not subject to constraints comparable to those provided for in SARA.

The Act Respecting Land Use Planning and Development (CQLR c. A-19.1) delegates regulatory authority for land-use planning and development to municipalities and regional county municipalities. It also states that municipalities and RCMs can put in place provisions that can be used to restrict or regulate new subdivision or construction projects or changes in land use during the development, amendment or review of planning tools.

2.2 Status of authorizations required for the Domaine mont Foster residential development project

Since the current project proponent has met all the conditions set out in section 1.2 of this document, the municipality has amended its land-use planning bylaws to allow the project to go ahead. It is possible that all municipal authorizations have been issued. The Brome-Missisquoi RCM has also endorsed the project by declaring that the urban planning bylaws adopted by the Municipality of West Bolton on June 10, 2019, are in keeping with the regional development plan. On June 20, 2019, the proponent informed the media that it was about to submit a request to MELCC for a certificate of authorization. The proponent indicated that it could take seven to eight months to secure the certificate of authorization and that it expected to be able to start construction in 2020 (Hébert 2019).

It emerged from informal discussions held between ECCC and MELCC from the spring to December 2019, that the provincial department had already received a request for a certificate of authorization. In light of the changes made to the original project configuration, the implementation of avoidance and protection measures (e.g. the conservation of a 20-metre riparian strip, the protection of 217 ha and the construction of drainage ditches separated from the watercourse, MELCC indicated that it saw few issues in terms of the project’s effects on the species and that it would issue the certificate of authorization, allowing the project to proceed.

On January 6, 2020, MELCC was still waiting for additional technical information from the proponent. Once it receives the information, MELCC will be ready to issue the certificate of authorization for the next steps in the project, namely the construction of 1 km of roads, which may result in the destruction of wetlands. ECCC estimates that the MELCC permit was issued in 2020, but ECCC has not received confirmation to that effect.

2.3 Assessment of the threats to the survival or recovery the species in Canada and the Bolton subpopulation in particular

Based on the information currently available, MELCC may issue a certificate of authorization as soon as the proponent provides additional information. There is every reason to believe that the project will be authorized in the near future or has already been authorized. However, modifications may be made to the project during the authorization process, such as the addition of mitigation or compensation measures. It was not possible to obtain the opinion of the Quebec Department of Forests, Wildlife and Parks (MFFP) or details of the conditions attached to MELCC’s authorization. As a result, it is difficult to fully evaluate the effect of the threats inherent in this project. Therefore, as a precaution, this section presents an assessment of the threats to the survival and recovery of the species in Canada and the Bolton subpopulation in particular, based on the known project’s parameters (those proposed by the proponent). The assessment is presented in the form of answers to the following six questions:

1. What is the status of the Spring Salamander (Adirondack / Appalachian population) in Canada and the Bolton subpopulation in particular?

2. What are the threats to the Spring Salamander and to the Bolton subpopulation in particular?

3. Are the current threats to the Spring Salamander and to the Bolton subpopulation in particular likely to persist in the coming years (≤ 10 years)?

4. What type of work has been done so far in the Domaine mont Foster residential development project and what work will be done in the future that can be considered potential threats to the Spring Salamander?

5. Could the anticipated threats associated with the Domaine mont Foster residential development project affect the species as a whole to the point of making its recovery impossible or highly unlikely?

5a. Could the anticipated threats associated with the Domaine mont Foster project make attaining the management objective (population aspect) impossible or highly unlikely?

5b. Could the anticipated threats associated with the project make attaining the management objective (distribution aspect) impossible or highly unlikely?

6. Could the anticipated threats associated with the residential development project affect the species as a whole to the point of making its survival impossible or highly unlikely?

The best available information was used to answer the questions. The main information sources used are as follows:

• correspondence between the applicant and ECCC
• correspondence between the applicant and the Municipality of West Bolton
• correspondence between the Municipality of West Bolton and ECCC
• COSEWIC. 2011. COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian Population (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xiv + 52 p
• Environment Canada. 2014. Management Plan for the Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) in Canada, Species at Risk Act Management Plan Series, Environment Canada, Ottawa, iv + 22 p
• Appalachian Corridor. 2018. Mount Foster Project: An agreement has been reached between the land developers and Appalachian Corridor. Communiqué. Eastman. 2 p. Communication from Corridor appalachien
• website of the Municipality of West Bolton. West Bolton Municipality
• various spatial databases that can be used to assess habitat conditions and threats (see Table 2)

1. What is the status of the Spring Salamander (Adirondack / Appalachian population) in Canada and the Bolton subpopulation in particular?

In Canada, the Spring Salamander (Adirondack / Appalachian population) is only found in southern Quebec, in the Appalachian Ecoregion. It occurs in isolated subpopulations in mountain ranges separated by valleys. The number of subpopulations is estimated to be between 21 (COSEWIC 2011) and 23 (Environment Canada 2014; see Figure 2). The subpopulations have not yet been precisely identified and delineated. The estimated extent of occurrence^{Footnote 3} is 17,237 km² and the index of area of occupancy^{Footnote 4} (IAO) is 1,416 km². The size of the overall population and the subpopulations is not known. According to COSEWIC (2011), most of the subpopulations likely have fewer than 5,000 adults.

As is the case for the other subpopulations in Canada, the size of the Bolton subpopulation is unknown. However, it is known that the IAO of this subpopulation accounts for about 7% of the species’ total IAO, or 96 km² (COSEWIC 2011). It occupies the mountain complex of the Green Mountain Foothills, the core of the species’ range in Canada (61.3% of the IAO) (Figure 2). Moreover, the largest number of observations of the Spring Salamander included in the database of the Centre de données sur le patrimoine naturel du Québec (CDPNQ) come from this mountain range. Habitat quality is fairly good in the area occupied by the Bolton subpopulation, with more than 85% of the area consisting of forest (see Table 2). Furthermore, 11% of the area (958 ha) corresponds to private lands on which conservation measures have been implemented thanks to the efforts of conservation organizations.

The most recent COSEWIC status assessment of the Spring Salamander (Adirondack / Appalachian population) was in 2011. The species was assessed as Threatened on the basis of the following quantitative criteria: (1) the extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 20,000 km²; and (2) the index of area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2,000 km². Moreover, the population is severely fragmented, and there is an observed and inferred continuing decline in area of occupancy, habitat area and quality, number of subpopulations and number of mature individuals.

Figure 2. Distribution of Spring Salamander subpopulations by mountain range in Quebec. The black arrow indicates the approximate location of the Domaine mont Foster project, within the Bolton subpopulation.

Adapted from ECCC (2014)

2. What are the current threats to the Spring Salamander and to the Bolton subpopulation in particular?

According to the most recent COSEWIC status report on the Spring Salamander (2011):

• the main threats to the species are alteration or reduction of water quality and water flow, which are attributable to human activities such as water exploitation, agriculture and residential or recreational development
• removal of the forest canopy is a serious threat (e.g., wood harvesting)
• water acidification and pollution that spreads via underground water channels and connecting surface streams have been described as threats to the survival of the species in the United States, and similar impacts are believed to exist in Canada
• the most serious threat to larvae is predation by fish, especially Brook Trout

It is difficult to determine the relative importance of the threats based on the information available.

A threat assessment conducted within the species’ range in Quebec is available in the Management Plan for the Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) in Canada (Environment Canada 2014) and is presented below in Table 1. This is a general assessment and may not be representative of certain local situations. A complete description of threats is also available in the management plan for the species (Environment Canada 2014).

Table 2 presents the land-use classes for the region occupied by the Bolton subpopulation. It provides an overview of the magnitude of some of the threats to the Spring Salamander, specifically those that can be mapped, and also gives an idea of the general status of habitat in this area. It was not possible to indicate the magnitude of the following threats: (1) groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial use; (2) alteration of surface water quality by acid rain; (3) introduction and stocking of fish; (4) climate change.

3. Are the current threats to the Spring Salamander and to the Bolton subpopulation in particular likely to persist in the coming years (≤ 10 years)?

Yes.

The current threats to the Spring Salamander are generally expected to persist within the overall range and the range of the Bolton subpopulation. The Quebec Stream Salamander recovery team, is currently assessing the likely threats to the Spring Salamander over the next 10 years, using the methodology developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (methodology now used by COSEWIC). Table 3 presents the draft version of this assessment (December 2018). Based on the IUCN methodology, the overall impact (cumulative) of these threats was assessed as “Low-High.” For the purpose of this threat assessment, ECCC added a column to Table 3 to indicate whether the threat is likely to affect the Bolton subpopulation. These threats are described in the draft recovery strategy and are outlined in Appendix 3.

4. What work that has already been carried out or is planned as part of the Domaine mont Foster residential development project can be considered a potential threat to the Spring Salamander?

Table 4 presents the work already completed or planned in the Domaine mont Foster project area that can be considered a potential threat to the Spring Salamander. The distance and area data provided in the table were calculated using Google Earth. These values are provided to give the reader an idea of the order of magnitude involved. Appendix 4 shows the areas where the work is to be done. The impacts associated with this work are described in Appendix 3.

5. Could the anticipated threats associated with the Domaine mont Foster residential development project affect the species as a whole to the point of making its recovery impossible or highly unlikely?

To answer this question, it is necessary to refer to the population and distribution objectives, which are set out in the recovery strategy for the species. ECCC is currently developing the draft recovery strategy for the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian population, in Canada, along with the population and distribution objectives. For the purposes of this threat assessment, the management objective established by ECCC, in collaboration with MFFP, and set out in the management plan for the species (Environment Canada 2014) was used. This objective is considered relevant for the present assessment as it is largely aligned with the Guidelines on Establishing Recovery Goals and Objectives (Environment Canada 2008) in terms of the rules of representation, redundancy and resilience.^{Footnote 5} The underlined part of the objective is especially important to consider in the present case.

“In the long term, the management objective consists in reducing, and if possible, eliminating, the threats to the Spring Salamander in order to maintain, and if possible, increase, the abundance of the subpopulations and their index of area of occupancy.”

This question is divided into two parts in order to address the “population” and “distribution” aspects separately. Based on the answers formulated below, it appears that the anticipated threats associated with the Domaine mont Foster residential development project present a low risk of affecting the species as a whole to the point of making its recovery impossible or highly unlikely.  

5. a) Could the anticipated threats associated with the Domaine mont Foster project make attaining the management objective (population aspect) impossible or highly unlikely?

The risk of this occurring is low.

The population objective is to maintain and, if possible, increase the abundance of the subpopulations identified by COSEWIC.

Although a local decrease in abundance is likely to occur following the completion of all the work planned as part of the Domaine mont Foster residential development project, it cannot be concluded that the expected impacts of this project, taken individually (see question 4) or in combination with the impacts of the other threats (see question 3), will compromise the abundance of the Spring Salamander population in Bolton to the point that achieving the population objective on which the present assessment is based will be impossible or highly unlikely.

The abundance of Spring Salamander populations is not well enough documented to be used for this analysis. The following values represent the best available information in Quebec, and they are provided for information purposes only: (1) a total of 25 adults was reported for a 1-km stretch of stream during a survey conducted in 2013 at Havelock, in Montérégie (Banque d’observations des reptiles et amphibiens du Québec, 2018); and (2) a maximum of four adults and two larvae, according to data collected during long-term monitoring of stream salamanders at Covey Hill (1-hour of searching along a 25-m‑long section of stream and inland up to 2 m from the edge of the stream (Boutin, unpublished data, in COSEWIC, 2011). This corresponds to 160 adults and 80 larvae per kilometre of stream. These results should not be considered population estimates, considering the variability and low probability of detecting Spring Salamanders during surveys.

Assuming there is a similar density of Spring Salamanders in the Bolton subpopulation, a useful way of assessing the project’s impacts on the population consists in assessing the proportion of habitat occupied by the species that is affected by the planned work. The CDPNQ occurrences (2019) were used for this purpose because they delineate the area required by the species to complete its life cycle, at each site where there is a confirmed record. The occurrences located on the lots slated for residential development in the Domaine Foster project (n = 3) cover an area of 0.014 km² (Appendix 1, see CDPNQ occurrences located on the identified lots), whereas the total area of the occurrences in the Bolton subpopulation (n = 27) is 1,525 km². Slightly less than 1% (0.95%) of the Bolton subpopulation could be directly affected by the project. The affected area corresponds to two sections of stream totalling about 500 metres. These sections are located at the head of the river network; connectivity with other suitable habitats is thus compromised very little or not at all.

Furthermore, it is unlikely that the segment of the subpopulation that could be directly affected by the planned work at Domaine mont Foster would disappear completely. A decline in this population segment is more likely to occur, and the magnitude of the decline should be small, taking into account the following elements:

• the roads that will be built are located more than 100 m from occupied streams (Appendix 1). There is a risk of road mortality, but it is low considering that the salamanders mainly use the aquatic environment of the stream and the banks. Spring Salamanders rarely venture more than 15 m from a stream
• in the concept plan^{Footnote 6} forest clearing is limited to 1,500 m² per lot, with the total area for the project ranging from just over 10,000 m² to 52,000 m². Tree clearing will also be carried out more than 50 m from a stream, except on lot 2 where the planned house appears to be very close to a portion of stream used by the Spring Salamander (analysis of the concept plan and Google Earth images [see Figure 1 and Appendix 4])

There are still some unknowns related to drinking water supply and wastewater management on the lots included in the project. There could be more serious consequences for the affected segment of the subpopulation if groundwater pumping was carried out, because this would reduce the amount of water available in streams, or if the water quality was adversely affected by wastewater management. No hydrogeological studies are available for estimating the impact of groundwater removal or wastewater releases on the Spring Salamander. There are 15 Spring Salamander occurrences within a 1-km radius of the lots slated for residential development in the Domaine mont Foster project (including the three occurrences located on those lots). These 15 occurrences, several of which are more than 1 km from the lots concerned, cover a total of 0.60 km², or 39% of the total area of the occurrences associated with the Bolton subpopulation. In this area, the anticipated indirect effects on the Spring Salamander population would likely be of low impact given the extent of the planned activities (e.g., number of water supply wells) and the mitigation measures that will be implemented.

According to the information provided by the Municipality of West Bolton, the project is conditional on the protection in perpetuity of a vast area of suitable habitat that would be beneficial to the recovery of the Spring Salamander, including an area of about 0.04 km² corresponding to13 occurrences of the species recorded by the CDPNQ. This area represents 2.6% of the total area of the Spring Salamander occurrences associated with the Bolton subpopulation. MELCC generally requires that mitigation measures be implemented for this type of project. To this end and as part of the analysis undertaken with a view to issuing the certificate of authorization, MFFP recommended mitigation measures for the Spring Salamander to MELCC. These measures are based on the Quebec government document entitled Guide de mitigation pour des travaux dans l’habitat des salamandres de ruisseaux en forêt privée (MFFP 2019), and include the following: (1) maintaining a forest riparian strip at least 20-m wide along streams; and (2) minimizing stream crossings and ensuring that they do not interfere with the dispersal of salamanders and do not degrade the quality of the aquatic or riparian environment. Compensation measures could also be implemented elsewhere for the Bolton subpopulation to ensure that no net loss occurs in terms of population abundance.

5. b) Could the anticipated threats associated with the Domaine mont Foster residential development project make achieving the management objective (distribution aspect) impossible or highly unlikely?

No.

The distribution objective is to maintain and, if possible, increase the index of area of occupancy of the subpopulations identified by COSEWIC.

The impacts of the Domaine mont Foster project, taken individually or in combination with the impacts of the other threats to the Bolton subpopulation, are not expected to compromise the species’ distribution to the point that achieving the distribution objective on which this assessment is based will become impossible or highly unlikely. The impacts of the project, covering an area of 30 ha, are not expected to reduce the index of area of occupancy for the Bolton subpopulation. This index is based on the species’ presence within a standardized 2 km x 2 km grid. The Bolton subpopulation covers an area of 96 km² (see map 6, COSEWIC 2014) and, within this area, the species is well distributed in several streams, as is shown by the maps of the 27 CDPNQ (2019) occurrences (totalling 38 polygons) provided in Appendix 1. As mentioned in question 5a), less than 1% of the total area of the occurrences of the Bolton subpopulation could be directly affected by the Domaine mont Foster project. Consequently, even in the worst-case scenario (i.e., disappearance of the species from the project’s area of influence, which includes the streams located in the project area as well as the downstream portion of these streams, which would be subjected to indirect impacts [e.g., sedimentation, alteration of the hydrological regime]), it is highly unlikely that the Spring Salamander will disappear from the streams that it occupies at present and it would be even more unlikely that it would disappear from one square of the standardized grid corresponding to the index of area of occupancy.

6. Could the anticipated threats associated with the Domaine mont Foster project affect the species as a whole to the point of making its survival impossible or highly unlikely?

No.

Given the answer and information provided in question 5, it does not appear necessary to elaborate on the answer to this question since the survival threshold is lower than the recovery threshold (see Figure 3). The likelihood that the species’ survival would be affected is much lower than the likelihood that its recovery would be affected.

Figure 3. Conceptual model of recovery and survival (ECCC 2016)

References

Appalachian Corridor. 2018. Mount Foster Project: An agreement has been reached between the land developers and Appalachian Corridor. Communiqué. Eastman. 2 p.

Banque d’observations des reptiles et amphibiens du Québec. 2015- . Database active since March 2015. Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs, Québec. Data extracted in 2018.

[CDPNQ] Centre de données sur le patrimoine naturel du Québec. 2019. Information extracted from the Data system for the Bolton subpopulation of the Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus). Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs, Québec. Data extracted in December 2019.

COSEWIC. 2011. COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian Population (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xiv + 52 p.

COSEWIC. 2018. Addendum to the COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada. 2011. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xiv + 52 p (Species at risk public registry).

[ECCC] Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2016. Policy on Survival and Recovery [Proposed]. Species at Risk Act: Policies and Guidelines Series, Government of Canada, Ottawa, 8 pp.

Environment Canada. 2014. Management Plan for the Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) in Canada, Species at Risk Act Management Plan Series, Environment Canada, Ottawa, iv + 22 p.

Environment Canada. 2008. Guidelines on Establishing Recovery Goals and Objectives – Draft. Species at Risk Act Implementation Guidance. Ottawa. 19 pp.

Hébert, C. 2019. mont Foster : la MRC de Brome-Missisquoi émet les certificats de conformité. Journal Le Guide, 20 June 2019 edition, Cowansville, Quebec.

Les Consultants S.M. Inc. 2007. Projet de réserve du parc du mont Foster, plan concept d’aménagement. [accessed March 2019]. Plan mont Foster

[MELCC] Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les Changements climatiques. 2015. Utilisation du territoire (couche matricielle à l’échelle du Québec contenant plusieurs dizaines de catégories d’utilisation du sol – résolution 30m).

[MERN] Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources naturelles. 2019. A mining title management system (GESTIM), Service des mines. Québec.

[MERN] Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources naturelles. 2018. Adresses Québec. Base de données des voies de communication routières au Québec (AQ réseauPlus). Direction de la référence géographique, Service de la cartographie. Québec.

[MFFP] Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs. 2019. In preparation. Guide de mitigation pour des travaux dans l’habitat des salamandres de ruisseaux en forêt privée. Version 2. Direction de la gestion de la faune de l’Estrie, de Montréal, de la Montérégie et de Laval. Secteur des opérations régionales. 12 p.

[MRNF] Ministère des Ressources naturelles. 2012. Données numériques écoforestières du Québec - 4^e programme d’inventaire forestier. Direction des inventaires forestiers.

Appendix 1. Map showing the location of Spring Salamander occurrences (Bolton subpopulation) and the Domaine mont Foster project

Red = Spring Salamander ocurrences recorded by the Centre de données sure le patrimoine naturel du Québec (CDPNQ) (2019)

Yellow = Bolton subpopulation (Environment Canada 2014)

Black = conservation area planned as part of the current project

Green = lots set aside for the construction of single-familt dwellings (under study with a view to issuance of a certificate of authorization)

White = lots for which all authorizations necessary for the construction of a single-familt dwelling have been issued

Blue = hydrographic network according to the Base de données topographiques du Québec, 1 / 20,000 scale

Appendix 2. Map of land-use classes (MELCC 2015) within the boundaries of the Bolton Spring Salamander subpopulation

Appendix 3. Description of threats to the Spring Salamander (Adirondack / Appalachian population) in the draft recovery strategy currently being developed

1.1.1 Road network

(International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Threat 4.1 Roads and railroads)

The development of road networks in or near the habitat of the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian population, is associated with residential, commercial, recreation and tourism development and with harvesting activities (forestry, agriculture, mining). This threat poses a risk of severe degradation of habitat quality, primarily through alteration of water quality. For example, roads, particularly those with heavy traffic, generate runoff and can alter habitat quality by increasing sediment delivery to streams used by the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian population (COSEWIC 2011). Sediment loads may be particularly high in winter when sand and gravel are spread on the roads. Sediment that fills the interstitial spaces between rocks in the streambed can adversely affect the survival of adults (Lowe et al. 2004) by reducing the availability of shelter and food resources (Waters 1995; Shannon 2000). A decrease in shelter abundance in habitat may result in an increase in predation risk as well as increased competition among individuals, leading to changes in stream salamander communities (Krzysik 1979; Southerland 1986; Roudebush and Taylor 1987). Recruitment in stream salamanders, which include the Spring Salamander, can also be impaired if sediments are deposited on eggs (Bruce 1978).

The installation of pipe culverts for stream crossings can have a more direct and significant impact than roads on the habitat of the Spring Salamander. In addition to erosion and sedimentation, pipe culverts can cause direct loss of habitat because the streambed in the section traversed by these structures cannot be used for foraging or shelter.

Vehicle traffic on roads could also increase loadings of pollutants to which salamanders are sensitive to headwater streams and increase the risk of road mortality. However, since the species’ movements in the terrestrial environment are very limited, the risk of being run over by vehicles is likely low. Road development may fragment the habitat of the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian population, and remove patches of suitable habitat from the landscape. This can lead to increased isolation of subpopulations, reducing the likelihood of recolonization through overland dispersal (Fagan et al. 2009) and increasing the risk of local extinction (Lowe 2002). In general, the heavier the road traffic, particularly at night when salamander movements are more frequent, the greater the threat the road network poses to habitat quality and connectivity and the higher the risk to the survival of individuals.

Lastly, new road construction may involve forest cover removal, resulting in significant alteration of moisture and temperature conditions in the habitat of the Spring Salamander. The effects of wood harvesting are discussed in more detail in section 1.1.2.

1.1.2 Logging

(IUCN Threat I5.3 Logging and wood harvesting)

The effects of logging on the Spring Salamander could be significant (COSEWIC 2011; Corn and Bury 1989; Petranka 1994; Gibbs 1998). Removal of forest cover alters moisture and temperature conditions that are crucial for the survival of the Spring Salamander. Logging can also have an indirect effect on water quality through the release of effluents (the impact of forestry effluents is covered under the threat “forestry and agricultural effluents” in section 1.1.11). Lastly, forest harvesting can lead to habitat fragmentation and increase the risk of local extinction (Lowe 2002).

In Quebec, the area considered in the calculation of the index of area of occupancy for the Spring Salamander is located primarily on lands where forest harvesting is permitted. Given the age and composition of the forest stands in the Covey Hill region, they have considerable merchantable value, and the risk associated with logging is considered very high (Deland and Sierra 2016). The extent of this threat has not, however, been precisely determined.

1.1.3 Agriculture and maple production

(IUCN Threat 2.1 Annual and perennial non-timber crops)

Certain types of agricultural production could pose a threat to the Spring Salamander because it involves: (1) clearing, conversion and fragmentation of forest habitat; (2) increased demand for water; (3) a decline in water quality (e.g., pollution, turbidity, sedimentation, which are addressed in section 1.1.11); and (4) disturbance or direct mortality of individuals.

In Quebec, over 40% of the area calculated by the index of area of occupancy of the Spring Salamander is located on land subject to the Act Respecting the Preservation of Agricultural Land and Agricultural Activities (R.S.Q., c. P-41.1). The crops most likely to adversely affect the species are berries (particularly blueberries), Christmas trees, grapes and apples. These crops can be grown at higher elevations than row crops. The Covey Hill (Adirondack Foothills) subpopulation of Spring Salamanders is believed to be particularly vulnerable to agricultural activities due to the presence of orchards and vineyards near habitats used by the species (Frenette 2008). Elsewhere in the Appalachians, agricultural activities are carried out on the periphery of the subpopulations and are not believed to pose a significant threat. However, agricultural development at high elevations is a possibility in the medium term and could compromise the persistence of some subpopulations.

Since the extent of occurrence of the Spring Salamander is located in regions with high potential for maple syrup production (Commission de protection du territoire agricole, 2017), the development or intensification of maple syrup production at a high elevation could pose a threat, particularly through repeated ford crossings and trail construction or maintenance. However, since maple syrup production is considered an agricultural activity under the Act Respecting the Preservation of Agricultural Land and Agricultural Activities, the legal protection afforded to sugar maple stands may contribute to mitigating threats to the species’ habitat (Équipe de rétablissement des salamandres de ruisseaux du Québec 2018).

1.1.4 Residential and recreation and tourism development

(IUCN Threat 1.1 Housing and urban areas and 1.3 Tourism and recreation areas)

Residential and recreation and tourism development could result in the destruction (e.g., deforestation), degradation (e.g., changes in the hydrological regime) and fragmentation (e.g., roads) of Spring Salamander habitat. Urbanization increases soil erosion and runoff, leading to changes in stream characteristics and reducing the quantity and quality of habitats available for amphibians (Riley et al. 2005; Grant et al. 2009). In addition, contaminants, fine sediments and organic matter from urban areas alter the food chain and reduce the stability of salamander populations (Barret 2010). These degraded conditions increase the risk of extinction events in salamander populations (Price et al. 2006). Furthermore, the simplification of stream networks that can result from urbanization (Dunne and Leopold 1978; Sophocleous 2000) increases the isolation of subpopulations and the risk of local extinction (Lowe 2002). Lastly, residential and recreation and tourism development are usually supported by a road network (see section 1.1.2), and pumping of groundwater for supply purposes (see section 1.1.9).

Since the early 1990s, residential and recreation and tourism development has increased significantly within the range of the current Spring Salamander population in Quebec (COSEWIC 2011). Residential development is on the rise, particularly in the Green Mountain Foothills. Increased recreation and tourism development (e.g., ski resorts, ATV trails, campgrounds) has become more widespread and is affecting a growing number of subpopulations (some examples are given in the previous COSEWIC status report [2011]). Mounts Shefford, Brome, Orford and Sutton have been targeted by developers, and expansion activities at the Bromont ski resort have been carried out in areas where the species is abundant (Frenette 2007; COSEWIC 2011). In 2017, Quebec’s tourism department announced investments for the development of ski resorts at Mounts Brome, Orford and Sutton (Toursime Québec 2017). In 2018, Tourisme Cantons-de-l’Est also confirmed its intention to further develop the tourism sector in the region (TourismExpress 2018).

1.1.5 Livestock farming and ranching

(IUCN Threat 2.3 Livestock farming and ranching)

Livestock farming in or upstream of the area occupied by the Spring Salamander could have serious impacts on individuals and habitat quality. Conversion of forest to open pasture can modify temperature and moisture conditions in salamander habitat, causing increased runoff and alteration of the hydrographic network (Riley et al. 2005; Grant et al. 2009). In addition, forest clearing can significantly increase soil erosion and lead to higher levels of sediment loading. The effects of wood harvesting are discussed in greater detail in section 4.2.2. The consequences of converting forest to open agricultural land are generally more permanent than logging, given that livestock farming may prevent forest regeneration. In addition, livestock farming may release contaminants into the environment that have negative impacts on amphibian development (e.g., nitrogen; Rouse et al. 1999) and reproduction (e.g., organochlorine insecticides; Park et al., 2001). These effects are covered in section 1.1.11. The livestock farming sector in the region occupied by the Spring Salamander is currently in decline and there appears to be greater interest in developing the recreation and tourism sector (MRC Brome-Missisquoi 2010; MRC de Memphrémagog 2014; MRC d’Arthabaska 2016; MRC du Haut-Saint-François, 2016; MRC de Val-Saint-François, 2016).

1.1.6 Wind energy

(IUCN Threat 3.3 Renewable energy)

Although wind energy production is increasing in the province as a whole, the Eastern Townships, Montérégie, Centre-du-Québec and Chaudière-Appalaches regions have limited wind energy potential compared to other regions of Quebec (Hélimax Énergie Inc., 2005). Nonetheless, considerable wind energy potential exists in certain portions of the range of the Spring Salamander, particularly in the Monteregian Hills, the Bécancour Hills and the White Mountain Foothills (Benoît and Wu 2004; MERN 2005a 2005b; 2005c). Some projects, which cover several hundred square kilometres, are already having effects on certain subpopulations as well as on many areas containing suitable habitat for the species (Anaïs Boutin, comm. pers.). Since 2012, four wind farms have started up in or near the range of the Spring Salamander (MERN 2018). The impacts of wind farm access road construction and maintenance are detailed in section 1.1.1. Given the heavy machinery used and the potential for erosion, the construction and maintenance of new wind farms could be more detrimental than their subsequent operations.

1.1.7 Utility and service lines

(IUCN Threat 4.2 Utility and service lines)

Utility lines, particularly power lines, can degrade the habitat of the Spring Salamander by causing stream erosion and sedimentation and habitat fragmentation. Forest clearing required for the construction of these lines can also alter habitat moisture and temperature conditions and contribute to its fragmentation. Many utility lines already exist in areas inhabited by the Spring Salamander, and new utility lines are slated to be constructed in the next 10 years.

1.1.8 Recreational activities

(IUCN Threat 6.1 Recreational activities)

All-terrain vehicle (ATV) use in or near the habitat of the Spring Salamander can increase stream erosion and sedimentation. Salamanders are at risk of being run over and killed by ATVs driven in the species’ habitat. Since it is difficult to assess the frequency with which recreational activities take place in the habitat of the Spring Salamander, the effects of this threat have not been precisely quantified. ATVs have nonetheless been seen driving in streams, which appear to be used as an access route.

1.1.9 Groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial use

(IUCN Threat 7.2 Dams and water management/use)

The recharge of most headwaters is largely controlled by groundwater inflow, which is critical to the maintenance of minimum flows^{Footnote 7} (Larocque and Pellerin 2006) and is a key factor in the quality of stream salamander habitat (Fournier 2008). Groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial purposes is likely to affect the Spring Salamander by reducing water availability in its habitat and modifying the natural water regime (Jutras 2003; Frenette 2008). This could cause habitat loss or degradation as well as significant mortality due to the species’ limited dispersal ability. Declines in certain stream salamander populations have been linked to lowering of the water table and reduction in dissolved oxygen concentrations (Bowles and Arsuffi 1993; Turner 2004). Groundwater pumping could also isolate individuals or subpopulations in residual habitat fragments separated by habitat unfavourable to their survival. The reduction in water levels could also affect the species’ reproductive success and the availability of food resources.

There is growing demand for groundwater within the range of the Spring Salamander in Quebec, particularly in the southwest portion (Adirondack Foothills, Green Mountain Foothills and Monteregian Foothills). Groundwater pumping for agriculture (e.g., irrigation of orchards), recreation and tourism (e.g., campgrounds and golf courses) and for drinking water supplies (e.g., bottling) are the main activities that could have a negative impact on the species.

1.1.10 Introduction and stocking of fish

(IUCN Threat 8.1 Invasive alien species)

Predation by fish is the most serious threat to Spring Salamander larvae (COSEWIC, 2011). Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) is a particularly serious predator because its habitat requirements are similar to those of the Spring Salamander. The introduction of this species into habitat used by Spring Salamander reduces the growth rate and survival of individuals (Resetarits 1991; 1995; Lowe et al. 2004), which can lead to a reduction in population size (Lowe and Bolger 2002). Stocked fish can also transmit diseases or parasites to salamanders and to other organisms in the ecosystem (Bonin 2001; Jutras 2003).

The vulnerability of Spring Salamanders to predation increases significantly when interstitial refuges become scarce (Lowe et al. 2004). Therefore, the introduction of fish should be considered as a severe threat particularly in the presence of timber harvesting, the establishment of a road network or other practices that could promote erosion near the species’ habitat.

Annual salmon stocking is carried out in several streams located within the range of the Adirondack / Appalachian population, specifically downstream of certain streams used by the Spring Salamander (Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune 2008). However, there is insufficient information to determine whether the stocked fish actually reach the areas where the salamanders occur and whether such areas were formerly free from predatory fish species (i.e., salmonids).

1.1.11 Agricultural and forestry effluents

(IUCN Threat 9.3 Agricultural and forestry effluents)

Agricultural and forestry activities can cause erosion and increase sedimentation in nearby streams. The effects of sedimentation on the Spring Salamander are described in section 4.2.1. Agricultural and forestry activities can also lead to increased organic matter in Spring Salamander habitat, which can reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water and could have negative effects on the larvae (Bider and Matte 1994). The magnitude of these effects may vary depending on the practices adopted (MAPAQ 2017; Groupe d’experts sur la sylviculture intensive de plantations, 2013), for example, the proportion of soil that remains covered. Agricultural activities may also release into the environment contaminants that pose a threat to amphibian development (e.g., nitrogen from fertilizers; Rouse et al. 1999) or reproduction (e.g., organochlorine insecticides; Park et al. 2001).

1.1.12 Storms and flooding

(IUCN Threat 11.4 Storms and flooding)

The increased volume and frequency of spring and fall floods due to the increase in precipitation contributes to higher mortality of metamorphosing individuals. Heavy rainfall can also alter soil stability and cause landslides or increase erosion and sediment loading to streams. Lowe (2012) observed an increase in precipitation in New Hampshire, where the Spring Salamander is known to occur, between 1999 and 2010. His results suggest that increasing precipitation is causing a decline in adult recruitment and could lead to the extirpation of certain local populations.

1.1.13 Mining and quarrying

(IUCN Threat 3.2 Mining and quarrying)

Mining and quarrying are currently not widespread within the range of the Spring Salamander. Nonetheless, development in this sector could have negative effects on the amount and quality of the habitat available for the species or on population conservation. Mining and quarrying could, for example, lead to the fragmentation, deforestation and conversion of forest habitat (see section 1.1.2), as well as to a reduction in water quality through inputs of contaminants and sediments, a decrease in the availability of shelters as a result of sediments filling interstitial spaces or cause direct mortality of individuals. Prospecting for metals or minerals in streams could also alter habitat, and disturb, injure or kill individuals, depending on the methods used (e.g., panning for gold or the use of hydraulic pumps to suction material from the streambed).

Although the Eastern Townships have long been known to have metal mining potential (e.g., copper), no new mines have been developed in the region in recent decades (Commission régionale sur les ressources naturelles et le territoire 2010). The region also has considerable potential as a source of architectural stone, crushed stone and industrial stone, and a number of gravel pits already operate in the area (Commission régionale sur les ressources naturelles et le territoire 2011). Gravel pits are usually located in areas adjacent to roadsides, and often concentrated at a considerable distance from subpopulations of the Spring Salamander (SIGEOM 2018).

There appears to be less interest in mining than in other economic sectors (e.g., tourism and agriculture) within the range of the Spring Salamander. Furthermore, there is a prohibition on mineral exploration, and the granting of mining titles has been temporarily suspended in part of the range because the region is considered a mining-incompatible territory (SIGEOM 2018). Therefore, the subpopulations of the Green Mountain Foothills, the Monteregian Hills and the Estrie Hills are likely safe from mining and quarrying in the short and medium term.

1.1.14 Acid rain

(IUCN Threat 9.5 Airborne pollutants)

Stream acidification from acid rain adversely affects the survival and abundance of most amphibians (Petranka 1998). The negative effects of acid rain on the Spring Salamander may be exacerbated by the low buffer capacity of headwater streams, which could be problematic during heavy rain events (Green and Peloquin 2008). In the southern Appalachians (United States), 40% of mountain streams exhibit signs of acidification, which is mainly caused by acid rain. Acidification has severely affected stream water chemistry in the area, and analyses predict it will continue to increase (Sullivan et al. 2004).

1.1.15 Drought

(IUCN Threat 11.2 Drought)

Climate projections for North America show an increase in annual average temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns, with more intense events separated by longer drought periods (Brooks 2009). These changes are expected to result in higher evapotranspiration rates, with attendant drying of surface water sources and lowering of the water table (Brooks 2009). Some streams, including those used by the Spring Salamander could disappear or be altered (i.e., too little or too much water). Such changes would affect the diversity and abundance of species that use these streams, particularly species with limited dispersal ability, such as the Spring Salamander. Another concern is that the reproductive success of stream salamanders could be severely compromised (Brook 2009).

Appendix 4. Google Earth satellite images used to identify the work done in the Domaine mont Foster residential development project during the 2007-2016 period