Forensic psychology: Part 4a: Appendix chapter 7

Individual Correlates of Violence

1. Past crime, particularly violent crime
2. Age
3. Sex
4. Race
5. Intelligence
6. Alcohol and psychostimulant abuse

Situational Correlates of Violence

1. Family system
2. Peer system
3. Job environment
4. Availability of victims
5. Availability of weapons
6. Availability of alcohol and psychostimulants

Intrapsychic Factors

1. Impulse control
2. Syntonic versus dystonic violence
3. Psychopathy
4. Delusional thoughts

Meloy (1989).

This guide, or aide memoire, is not to be seen as a scale, device, test, or other such instrument through which it might be possible to accurately assess or predict "dangerous." It is simply a list of factors which have been raised recently by a selected few clinicians and researchers. The literature is clear in pointing to the difficulties involved in the task of predicting violent or threatening behaviour. Although some of the variables listed below will undoubtedly be important in any particular clinical case, it is not at all clear that these same factors will necessarily apply in a second case. There is also the point that items to be weighted differently from one case to another. No claim is made that the following list is exhaustive.

A. Clarity of Purpose
1) Is the purpose of the evaluation clear?

B. Assessor Competence
2) Is the evaluator familiar with the theoretical, methodological, clinical, and research literature on the prediction of violent behaviour?
3) Is the assessor fully acquainted with the particular legal framework in which the prediction would be made?
4) Have issues of personal or professional ethics been satisfied?
5) Should this assessment be declined or passed to a better informed colleague?

C. Evaluation Circumstances
6) Has due allowance been made for the circumstances under which the assessment is being conducted (e.g. impending trial, effect of warnings about non-confidential status of evaluation, etc)?

D. Demographic Characteristics
7) (i) Age;
(ii) Sex;
(iii) Race;
(iv) Country of Birth;
(v) Social Class;
(vi) History of Drug or Alcohol Abuse;
(vii) IQ ;
(viii) Educational Attainment
(ix) Residential and Employment Stability ;
(x) Marital Status

E. Historical Investigation
8) What details are there about arrests and convictions for violent crimes?
9) Do parents and siblings have convictions for violent offenses?
10) Does the person belong to an anti-social peer group? Does the person own a weapons collection?
11) What information is there about juvenile involvement in violent acts?
12) Have there been mental hospitalizations for violent behaviour?
13) Is there evidence of violence in the home?
14) Are there other self reported violent acts against persons or property?
15) Can patient/prisoner's report be confirmed, supplemented, or expanded by friends, relatives, employers, etc?
16) How reliable an historian is assessee or other informants?
17) How complete is the data?

F. Precipitating Incident
18) Is a visit to the scene or situation necessary?
19) Is there a sufficiency of written or verbal information from the assessee or others?

G. Base-Rate Data
20) Are there base rate data which can be used or inferred?

H. Clinical/Criminological Considerations
21) What can be determined about person's affective state?
22) What can be determined about person's fantasy life?
23) What can be determined about person's ability to form intentional plans?
24) What detail can be elicited about person's actual behaviour before, during, and after the precipitating incident (and others like it, if any)?
25) To what extent is it likely that the person can control impulse and rage?
26) To what extent does the individual engage in threatening behaviour?
27) What are the sources of environmental, social and emotional stress in the person's current environment?
28) 'What positive coping strategies does the individual possess?
29) What are the individual's attitudes to violent conduct?
30) What is the person's reaction to pertinent kinds of victim?
31) Would any light be cast by an attempt to simulate the conditions under which violent conduct arose?
32) Does the patient see a connection or over-emphasize the causative connection between mental disorder and violent acts?
33) How "dangerous" does the person consider himself or herself to be?
34) Does the person show "respect for life?"
35) Does the person have suicidal thoughts or ideas?

I. Sexual Violence (If Applicable)
36) Is phallometric testing pertinent?
37) Does the person have sadistic fantasies?
38) Does the person have a pornography collection?
39) Is there evidence of sexual dysfunction?
40) Does the person have polymorphous sexual interests?

J. Formal Test Investigations
41) Do test results show impairment of psychological functioning?
42) If test results indicate violence proneness, how valid are the tests?
43) Is there actual evidence of a link between impaired psychological functioning and violent behaviour?

K. Future Projections
44) 'What is the similarity between past violence-inducting contexts and ones likely to arise in the future?
45) What is the likely availability of victims in the future?
46) To what extent, if any, are potential victims likely to provoke an attack, covertly or otherwise?
47) Is there any evidence of intense hostility or resentment toward some specific individual?
48) What is the likely effect of alcohol and drugs if available and used?
49) What is the likely availability of weapons in the future?
50) What is the likely response to treatment, if available?

L. Collegial Consultation
51) Is it possible that a colleague would be able to assist in the assessment?

M. Concluding Critical Review
52) To what extent are final opinions based on one or a few variable rather than the full range?

N. Reporting Considerations
53) Is the information to be transmitted new or original?
54) Has sub-evidenciary information been "laundered" into "clinical fact"?
55) Has undue to unfair bias been transmitted in the report?
56) Has "dangerousness" been constructed?
57) Is the diagnostic opinion, if any, precise?
58) Is there an expression of confidence in the opinion rendered?
59) If an opinion is expressed about violence potential, it is given in probabilistic terms, specifically defined, and over a set period of time?

O. Warning Considerations
60) Is it the case that the existence of some particular individual or organization would be risked if not warned of a potential threat?

J. Monahan (1981). Predicting Violent Behaviour: An Assessment of Clinical Techniques. Beverly Hills: Sage.

M. Menuk (1985). "Clinical Assessment of Dangerous Behaviour," in M.H. Ben-Aron, S.J. Hucker & C.D. Webster (Eds.), Clinical Criminology: The Assessment and Treatment of Criminal Behaviour. Toronto: M and M Graphics.

C.D. Webster, M.H. Ben Aron & S.J. Hucker (Eds.) (1985). Dangerousness: Probability and Prediction: Psychiatry and Public Policy. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Webster (1987).

1) Elementary school maladjustment
2) Arrested under age 16
3) Property offence history
4) Never married
5) Ever fired
6) Failure on prior conditional release
7) Age at index offence
8) Victim injury in index offence
9) Female victim in index offence
10) Alcohol abuse at time of index offence
11) Psychopathy Checklist
12) Schizophrenia
13) Personality disorder

Harris, Rice & Quinsey (1993).

A. History of Dangerous Behaviour Quvenile and Adult)
1) Juvenile history of dangerous felony or violence
2) Adult extra-institutional history of dangerous felony or violence
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

B. Institutional Record
1) Infractions for assault, fighting, or threatening
2) Possession of weapons
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

C. Stressors, Means to Violence
1) Violent fantasies and ruminations indicate a potentially dangerous system for coping with stress.
2) History of recurring use of weapons in offending
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

D. Victim and Environmental Issues
1) Recurring victim selection methods present in offense pattern
2) Similarity of projected environment to past offending pattern
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

E. Mental Disorder
1) Type of mental disorder related to acting out
2) Previous offense pattern linked with mental disorder
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

F. Psychological Testing
1) Psychological test data suggestive of potential for explosive behaviour
2) Psychological test data suggestive of evasion/denial of responsibility for dangerous behaviour.
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

G. Actuarial Scales
1) Risk suggested by scale used in prediction of assaultive behaviour
2) Risk suggested by scale used in recidivism prediction re: felonious behaviour
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

H. ModeratorVariables
1) Drug/alcohol abuse linked with loss of control over explosive behaviour
2) Sexual issues linked to maladaptive coping leading to dangerous striking out
Category Rating: High _ Medium _ Low _

Marra, Konzelman & Giles (1987).

Actuarial Predictors
Name Patient/Prisoner: _
Date of Assessment: _
Name of Assessor: _
Purpose of Assessment: _

I. Demographic Characteristics
A(1) Current Age
A(2) Sex
A(3) Marital Status
A(4) Highest Educational Grade
A(5) Suspended or Expelled from School
A(6) Lived with Both Parents until the Age of 16
A(7) Employed Within One Year of Offence
A(8) Ever Fired
A(9) Financial Problems
A(10) Social Assistance Within One Year
A(11) Most Serious Previous Charge

II. Historical Investigation
A(12) Number Inpatient Hospitalizations
A(13) Final Diagnosis at Pretrial Assessment
A(14) History of Alcohol Abuse
A(15) History of Drug Abuse
A(16) Number of Previous Sex Offence Arrests
A(17) Number of Previous Violent Offence Arrests
A(18) Number Previous Convictions
A(19) Number Previous Incarcerations
A(20) History of Escapes
A(21) Charge Laid or Parole/Probation Suspended Previously
A(22) Criminal Versatility
A(23) Belonged to Anti-social Peer Group
A(24) Alcohol Involvement with Prior Offenses
A(25) Drug Involvement with Prior Offenses
A(26) Age at First Arrest
A(27) Number of Previous Arrests
A(28) Most Serious Offence (if not Index)

III. Index Offence
A(29) Relationship of Victim(s) to Offender
A(30) Extent of Injury to Victim(s)
A(31) Sex of Victim(s)
A(32) Use of Weapon(s)

IV. Assessment Investigation
A(33) Psychopathy Checklist (PCL)
A(34) Level of Supervision Inventory (LSI)
A(35) WAIS I.Q.

1. Demographic Characteristics
C(1) Date(s) of Main Offence(s)
C(2) Geographical Location of Offence(s)
C(3) Educational Level if Improved since Offence
C(4) Original Warrant Security Level or Parole Conditions (if applicable)
C(5) Success on Warrants to Date (if applicable)

II. Historical Investigation
C(6) Self-reported Violent Acts Against Persons or Property
C(7) Violent Acts Ignored or Passed Over
C(8) Mental Hospitalization for Threatening and Violent Behaviour
C(9) Juvenile Involvement in Violent Acts
C(10) Evidence of Violence in Home of Patients

III. Assessment Investigation
C(11) Phallometric Age Preference (if changed since time of index offence)
C(12) Phallometric Rape/Coercion (if changed since time of index offence)
C(13) Positive Schizophrenic Symptoms
C(14) Life Skills Deficit
C(15) Social Withdrawal
C(16) Institutional Management Problems
C(17) Results of Specific Psychological Tests (depression, personality, etc.)
C(18) a) Hostility b) Anger c) Range d) Change in Empathy

IV. Clinical/Criminological Considerations
C(19) Untoward Aggressive or Sadistic Fantasy Life
C(20) Tendency to Form Intentional Plans for Violent Behaviour
C(21) Behaviour Before, During, and After Precipitating Incident
C(22) Ability to Control Impulses
C(23) Threatening Violent Behaviour
C(24) Current Sources of Social and Emotional Stress
C(25) Positive Coping Strategies (e.g. use community support)
C(26) Changes in Procriminal Rationalizations
C(27) Psychological Fixedness on Certain Specific Types of Victims
C(28) Acknowledgement of Psychological/Emotional Difficulties (insight)
C(29) Self Perception as Dangerous
C(30) Effort Applied to and Apparent Benefit from Treatment, Remediation
C(31) Preoccupation with Weapons & Violence
C(32) Current Preoccupation with Anti-social Groups
C(33) Suicidal Thoughts or Ideas
C(34) Diagnostic Stability

Sexual Violence
C(35) Type of Pornography Collections
C(36) Polymorphous Sexual Interests
C(37) Sexual Interests Appropriate to Age or Partner

Violence with Psychosis
C(38) Command Hallucinations
C(39) Specific Violent Delusions
C(40) Medication Response
C(41) Maintenance of Same Delusion as in Index Crime

V. Behaviour in the Community (If Applicable)
C(42) Similarity between Past Violence Inducing Contexts and Likely Future Ones
C(43) Likely Availability of Victims in Future
C(44) Intense Hostility or Resentment Toward Specific Individuals or groups
C(45) Likely Effect of Alcohol if Available and Used
C(46) Likely Effect of Drugs if Available and Used
C(47) Likely Availability of Weapons
C(48) Negative Emotional Attitude
C(49) Capacity to Connect to Community Support
C(50) Existence of Family Support and Ability to Use
C(51) Likely Compliance with Medications, if Prescribed
C(52) Stability of Living Conditions
C(53) Compliance with and Significance of Supervision
C(54) Existence of Realistic Life Plans
C(55) Improvement in Educational and Vocational Standing
C(56) Future Likely Response to Stressors

Webster (1992).