Nature, wildlife and conserved areas: Appearance before the Standing Committee – March 24, 2022

Animals in captivity

Q1. What federal measures, especially Environment and Climate Change Canada measures, are in place to protect animals in captivity? Does the Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act (WAPPRIITA) address animals in captivity?

• The key federal measures in place for the protection of animals in captivity are in the Criminal Code, the Fisheries Act and the Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act (WAPPRIITA).
• With limited exceptions, such as supporting rehabilitation, the Criminal Code prohibits keeping whales and other cetaceans in captivity. It also prohibits breeding or impregnating these animals and possessing or seeking to obtain their reproductive material.
• The Fisheries Act prohibits fishing for a cetacean with the intent to take it into captivity, with limited exceptions, such as when the cetacean is injured, in distress or in need of care.
• WAPPRIITA does not impose any requirements for the protection of animals in captivity but focusses on the trade of certain animals. It forbids the import, export and interprovincial transportation of species whose capture or trade is already controlled internationally, domestically or in the country of origin, unless the specimen is accompanied by the appropriate permits.

Q2. When and how does the Government intend on implementing its Mandate Letter commitment to introduce legislation to protect animals in captivity? Would the Government support a bill similar to Bill S-218 (the Jane Goodall Bill) if it was tabled in Parliament again, or would it introduce a similar Bill?

• ECCC is currently studying how best to implement this Mandate Letter commitment. This includes studying the Jane Goodall Bill.

Q3. The Criminal Code has already been amended to protect cetaceans. The Jane Goodall Bill just extends that protection to apes and elephants, so why not support it outright if it gets re-introduced?

• The Jane Goodall bill actually went beyond prohibiting the custody of animals that are kept in captivity, such as cetaceans.
• For example, the Bill would enable:
  • appointing animal advocates for each province, who, among other things, could apply to have a court issue orders in an animal’s “best interests” (e.g. ordering an offender to modify physical conditions of captivity);
  • adding other species to which the Criminal Code prohibitions would apply;
  • expanding offences related to the breeding of cetaceans, great apes, elephants and designated animals;
  • new offences related to the actions of corporate officers;
  • issuing a license for a person to keep a great ape, elephant or designated animal in captivity provided it is in the “best interests of the animal”, taking into consideration the animal’s individual welfare and conservation of the species;
  • adding restrictions on the trade of elephant ivory and elephant hunting trophies and on the import and export of elephants, great apes and designated animals.
• For this reason, officials continue to study the bill in the event it is re-introduced, including considerations related to the federal-provincial division of powers and the use of criminal law.

Illegal wildlife trade in canada

Q1. What are the impacts of illegal wildlife trade?

• Illegal wildlife trade and environmental crime is the fourth most lucrative form of organized crime worldwide. Annual economic losses worldwide due to illegal logging, fishing and wildlife trade combined are measured in the billions.
• Illegal wildlife trade is the second biggest threat to wild species after habitat destruction. It has negative implications for climate change, preservation of biodiversity, and security.

Q2. What is ECCC doing to curb illegal wildlife trade?

• Environment and Climate Change Canada administers the Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act (WAPPRIITA) which prohibits the import, export and interprovincial transportation of protected species, as well as their parts and derivatives. In Canada, WAPPRIITA is the legislation that enforces the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) which is an international agreement to ensure that international trade of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
• The Department’s Enforcement Branch regularly carries out operations to deter and prosecute offenders involved in illegal wildlife trade. For example, every year, ECCC’s enforcement officers participate in Interpol’s Operation Thunder - an international enforcement effort in collaboration with the World Customs Organization, aimed at cracking down on wildlife crime. In 2021, this operation involved 118 countries, and resulted in 1,000 seizures of illegally traded specimens of protected wildlife.
• During Operation Thunder, ECCC enforcement officers, in partnership with the Canada Border Services Agency, conducted blitzes along the border with the United-States. Officers uncovered various commodities made from protected species being trafficked between the United-States and Canada such as Crocodile parts, hunting trophies of African primates, and Brazilian rosewood.

Q3. Who are ECCC’s partners to curb illegal wildlife trade?

• Environment and Climate Change Canada works in partnership with many Canadian federal departments such as Global Affairs Canada, to define our role on the international scene, and the Department of Justice, to advance legislative tools that strengthen wildlife protection in Canada.
• We also work with the Provinces, Territories, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. We rely on the strong working relations with these partners to carry out joint enforcement operations and share intelligence.
• More broadly, departmental officials work with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime on various fronts. For example, we exchange experiences and best practices in combatting wildlife crime to get a better understanding of the link between wildlife and organized crime in the Americas.

Q4. What is Canada’s involvement in the international trade of elephant ivory in Canada?

• Canada is a small player in the global trade of ivory importing about 4% of ivory in legal trade globally. This represents an annual average of 730 items made from ivory imported per year, including an average of 11 tusks imported per year.
• Most imports into Canada are of old ivory that was acquired before the trade was controlled in the mid-1970s and as such has been grandfathered and is legal; and some strictly controlled trade in newer ivory. These include antique pianos, bagpipes, chess sets, carvings, and hunting trophies that originate from the legal harvest of sustainable African elephant populations.
• Between 2010 and 2019 there were sixty four non-compliant cases involving ivory and a total of twenty-one seizures of elephant ivory goods in Canada. Most infractions related to ivory in Canada are items that could be legally imported or exported, but were not accompanied by the proper documentation. These items are not linked to the current elephant poaching crisis.

Nature and biodiversity conservation

Q1. What is Canada doing to address biodiversity loss?

• We are facing an unprecedented biodiversity crisis with more than 1 million species facing extinction globally, including 622 at-risk species in Canada. This rapid decline of biodiversity is threatening the foundations of our economy, food security, health, and quality of life.
• Canada is taking a strong international leadership role on the development of an ambitious new Global Biodiversity Framework with clear targets and actions to be finalized at the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity 15th Conference of the Parties later this year in Kunming, China.
• Following adoption of the new post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, Canada will develop a domestic biodiversity strategy and action plan to 2030, in collaboration with provinces, territories, Indigenous representatives and other stakeholders, covering all areas of nature conservation and sustainable use and building on the plan to 25%.
• In Budget 2021, the Government of Canada invested $2.3 billion over five years to enable Canada to reach its goal of conserving 25% of our lands and oceans by 2025, and to work towards conserving 30% of each by 2030. Taken together with funding provided for the Nature Legacy Initiative announced in 2018, this represents the largest investment in nature conservation in Canada’s history.
• The commitment to conserve 30% of Canada’s lands and oceans by 2030 is closely linked to the Government’s goal to halt and reverse nature loss, conserve and restore species at risk, and to better account for the values of nature, including nature-based climate adaptation and mitigation.
• To help address the twin crises of biodiversity loss and climate change, Canada is also investing over $4 billion over ten years (2021-2031) to deliver nature-based climate solutions in forests, grasslands, wetlands, and agricultural lands. These efforts will benefit biodiversity, build resilience in our ecosystems and nature-based economic sectors, create green jobs, and contribute to Canada’s 2030 and 2050 climate goals.

Nature-based climate solutions

Q1. What action is Canada taking to address the dual crises of biodiversity loss and climate change?

• Canada is investing over $4 billion over ten years (2021-2031) to deliver nature-based climate solutions in forests, grasslands, wetlands, and agricultural lands. This investment includes planting 2 billion trees, restoring degraded ecosystems, improving land management practices, and conserving land at risk of conversion to other uses. These efforts will benefit biodiversity, build resilience in our ecosystems and nature-based economic sectors, create green jobs, and contribute to Canada’s 2030 and 2050 climate goals. This work will build on existing successful initiatives, complement other federal programs, and draw on strong partnerships to ensure its effectiveness.
• Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC), Agriculture and Agri-food Canada (AAFC), and Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) are working together to deliver on the Natural Climate Solutions Fund. In addition to tree planting, working to restore, better manage, and conserve ecosystems, and promoting the adoption of environmentally-friendly farming practices, the Fund includes investments in research, monitoring, science, and reporting to better understand and track greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions from funded activities.
• Between 2021 and 2031, ECCC will use $631 million to support projects that collectively reduce GHG emissions by 2-4 megatons annually while providing a host of biodiversity and other benefits. Specifically, funding will support projects that conserve, restore and enhance wetlands, peatlands, and grasslands to store and capture carbon, with direct benefits for migratory birds, species at risk and other species of cultural and/or socio-economic importance to local communities. The first projects were announced in summer 2021, and the first open call for proposals closed in late January 2022.

Q2. How is Canada encouraging Nature-Based Climate Solutions globally?

• Canada is advocating for coordinated global action to address both climate change and biodiversity loss. Canada will allocate at least 20% of its $5.3-billion climate finance commitment to nature-based climate solutions and biodiversity co-benefits in developing countries over the next five years.
• This represents more than CA$1 billion. The Prime Minister announced at COP26 that Canada would provide $15 million in support for the Ocean Risk and Resilience Action Alliance and the Global Fund for Coral Reefs. This funding will help developing countries build domestic capacity to take climate action, build resilience, and advance adaptation efforts while also increasing biodiversity.

Protected and conserved areas

Q1. Why has the government committed to conserving 30% by 2030, and is achieving this commitment feasible?

• The most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report suggests that maintaining the resilience of biodiversity and ecosystem services at a global scale depends on effective and equitable conservation of approximately 30% to 50% of the Earth’s land, freshwater and ocean areas.
• 30% by 2030 is an ambitious goal—as of December 2021, approximately 13.5% of terrestrial and almost 14% of ocean areas have been conserved or protected in Canada. Budget 2021 investments set the stage to meet this goal and work is already underway.
• In Canada, working with partners is essential, as land available for conservation and protection are under diverse jurisdictions. Protected and conserved areas are therefore established in close collaboration with Indigenous peoples; provincial, territorial, and municipal governments; non-government organizations; philanthropic foundations and the private sector.
• As set out in the Minister’s mandate letter, Canada’s plan is grounded in science, Indigenous knowledge and local perspectives, and will use a variety of tools to achieve area-based conservation, including protected areas, other effective conservation measures (OECM) and Indigenous-led area-based conservation.

Q2. What is Canada doing to support protected and conserved areas establishment?

• Since 2015, Canada has increased its protected terrestrial areas by more than 2%. As of December 2021, 13.5% of lands and inland waters have been protected. On the marine side, Canada has protected 14% of our marine and coastal areas, up from less than 1% in 2015.
• Canada’s protected and conserved area standards are based on International Union for Conservation of Nature guidance, and managed to ensure the long-term sustainability of the areas’ natural qualities and amenities.
• Within Canada, lands can be counted towards our area-based conservation targets if they are considered a protected area or an Other Effective Conservation Measure (OECM). Both types of conservation action deliver enduring conservation; however, conservation is not necessarily the primary use at a site that is considered an OECM.
• As part of the Government’s commitment to the conservation targets, Budget 2021 provided funding to Parks Canada to establish 10 new national marine conservation areas and 10 new national parks, and to acquire the land needed to expand and complete existing national parks as well as $130 million to work with partners to create a network of national urban parks. Budget 2021 also provided funding to ECCC to protect and expand 22 of Canada’s national wildlife areas.
• Environment and Climate Change Canada supports protected and conserved areas work through funding for third party land protection, as well as expanding our federally managed network of National Wildlife Areas and Migratory Bird Sanctuaries, managed under the Canada Wildlife Act and the Migratory Birds Sanctuary Regulations.
• ECCC’s current network includes 92 Migratory Bird Sanctuaries and 55 National Wildlife Areas and covers 151,103 km².

Species at risk

Q1. What is the Government doing to support species at risk?

• We are committed to the protection of Canada’s unique habitats and the protection and recovery of species at risk based on sound science.
• The Government of Canada is committed to fulfilling its obligations under SARA. These include developing recovery plans in partnership with provinces and territories, including the identification of critical habitat and collaborating with provinces and territories to conserve and protect species at risk.
• Budget 2021 committed $2.3 billion over five years – the largest investment in nature conservation in Canada’s history. This historic investment will strengthen protection and recovery of species at risk and their habitats.
• Our investments and engagement are enabling real, on-the ground action to achieve better outcomes for species at risk such as Caribou, Polar Bear and Old Growth-dependent species at risk like Spotted Owl and Marbled Murrelet.
• We seek to achieve species benefits in all our conservation efforts, be that establishing new protected area, working with our colleagues in the United States on our shared migratory bird priorities or demonstrating leadership on the international stage.
• At home, we will continue to partner with Indigenous leadership to advance conservation actions in a manner that reflects their unique needs, priorities, rights, knowledge, respecting our collective efforts towards reconciliation.

Q2. What is the Government doing for caribou?

• Provinces and territories have the primary responsibility to manage lands and wildlife on non-federal land. The Government of Canada is working in cooperation with provinces, territories, wildlife management boards, stakeholders and Indigenous peoples to implement actions to protect at-risk caribou species and their habitat, and to achieve positive conservation outcomes.
• The Government of Canada has been actively working with provinces and territories, and Indigenous people, to negotiate and implement conservation agreements to advance the conservation and recovery of caribou.
• Most recently, Canada has signed an agreement with the province of Alberta, as well as an agreement with Mikisew Cree First Nation and Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation. Other agreements are currently being negotiated.
• These agreements aim to delivering tangible on-the-ground actions, with a focus on conservation measures that will improve outcomes for caribou, including monitoring and protection.
• Parks Canada invested $24M from the Nature Legacy Initiative to reduce threats and improve habitat for southern mountain caribou and create better conditions for their survival and recovery. This includes advancing detailed design work, and engagement on a conservation breeding facility to rebuild caribou herds in Jasper National Park.

Q3. What is the Government doing for Western Chorus Frog?

• The government has taken steps to protect important habitat for the Western Chorus Frog from the threat of urban development in La Prairie and in Longueuil, part of Montreal Metropolitan Community.
• In addition we have protection orders in place on our own federal properties to ensure the critical habitat for the species is conserved.
• We have also made investments in projects like breeding and re-introduction programs that aim to conserve and recover the species across Ontario and Quebec.
• ECCC continues to advance collaborative outcomes for protecting and recovering the species through the Pan-Canadian Approach to Transforming Species at Risk Conservation in Canada.
• ECCC continues to protect and manage the species’ critical habitat on federal lands through compliance promotion and permitting.

Q4. What is the Government doing for Marbled Murrelet, and other species in the vicinity of Fairy Creek, BC?

• BC’s old growth forests are home to many species at risk, including Marbled Murrelet, Spotted Owl, Southern Mountain Caribou, and Northern Goshawk.
• The federal government is committed to collaborating towards the recovery and protection of forest-dependent species at risk in BC. This includes support for Indigenous-led conservation efforts.
• It also means including old growth forests as a key topic of discussion with the province in the context of negotiations of a Bilateral Nature Agreement.
• These forests and species are found on provincial lands and we continue to look first to the province to protect and recover species at risk on these lands and to manage its forestry sector.
• While the federal government continues to prioritize work with BC and partners on these issues, the Minister of Environment will use the authorities outlined in federal legislation if BC protection efforts are determined to be ineffective.

2 Billion Trees

Q1. Why aren’t more of the 2 Billion trees already planted?

• The Minister of Natural Resources, with support from the Minister of Environment and Climate Change, was mandated to develop and implement a plan to plant two billion trees over the next 10 years as part of a broader commitment to natural climate solutions. This program was officially launched in February 2021, with federal funds secured in the 2020 fall economic statement.
• The process to get from seeds to trees is complex and involves multiple activities, from seed collection, to nursery operations, to site preparation, and finally to tree planting. Many of these activities are seasonal, some of which can occur only 4 to 5 months per year.
• Tree planting also requires careful planning to ensure the right tree is planted in the right place, for the right reasons. Different species and sizes of trees are required in different planting projects across the country.
• This is why planting 2 billion trees will take several years to ramp up, The Program has been designed to plant incrementally more trees in every planting year than the year before. By ramping up planting activities every year, Canada will hit its target of 2 billion trees planted over 10 years.
• In its first year, the 2 Billion Trees (2BT) program achieved results beyond expectations: over 30M trees, representing more than 50 species, are expected to be planted at more than 500 sites, in all provinces. Going forward, the Government of Canada will enter into longer-term agreements to secure planting over 10 years. After a ramp up, by 2026, the program aims to plant 250-350M trees annually. This is in addition to the 500M already planted in Canada each year.
• The exact number of trees planted will be reported by our partners after all of their planting activities are completed. Final results for the 2021 tree planting season will be available in spring 2022.

Q2. How does ECCC support the 2BT initiative?

• In addition to mitigating the impacts of climate change and providing jobs, the 2BT program will also support the restoration of forested habitat for species at risk and other species of conservation interest, such as Boreal and Southern Mountain Caribou, and migratory birds.
• Since the inception of the program, ECCC has been working closely with NRCan and other partners – including the provinces and territories – to ensure the 2BT program maximizes biodiversity and conservation benefits.
• Further, ECCC is providing scientific expertise and strategic advice to develop policies, identify interactions, and evaluate horizontal program linkages. This includes ensuring alignment with other governmental initiatives, such as Enhanced Nature Legacy and the wider Nature-based Climate Solutions program.
• ECCC will continue to actively engage with NRCan, the provinces and territories, and other partners to advance nature outcomes and achieve mutual benefits and goals.

Q3. What will the funding Parks Canada is receiving in the Supplementary Estimates be used for?

• The $660,410 transfer from the Department of Natural Resources to Parks Canada Agency included in Parks Canada’s 2021-2022 Supplementary Estimates (C) is to support the planting of 150,000 trees in Parks Canada-administered places from coast to coast in 2021. This transfer supports the Government of Canada’s commitment to address climate change and protect biodiversity.
• Parks Canada worked with local community groups to plant 146,716 trees in or near 17 Parks Canada sites in 2021. This included 47,570 trees planted in Rouge National Urban Park and 65,000 trees in Terra Nova National Park.

Q4. What is Parks Canada doing to support the 2 billion trees commitment, and is PCA part of the over $4 billion Natural Climate Solutions Fund?

• Parks Canada is part of the Natural Climate Solutions Fund. The Agency is currently working with partners to develop long-term planting plans for the next nine years at Parks Canada sites across the country.
• Parks Canada is committed to planting trees in ways that enhance biodiversity, ecological integrity and capture carbon. Tree planting takes time and requires the careful selection of site, seed source, and species.
• Parks Canada expects to increase planting efforts over the next nine years. Rouge National Urban Park intends to plant 45,000 trees each year over the next nine years. This project will enhance biodiversity and ecological connectivity in an urban landscape.
• Gros Morne National Park is planning to plant up to 2 million trees over the next seven years as part of a project to restore boreal forest degraded by years of high moose numbers. This project is following a climate smart approach and will provide important habitat for migrating song birds and a variety of species at risk.

Q5. How can the 2 billion trees commitment support Parks Canada’s new priorities on ecological corridors and national urban parks?

• Ecological corridors and national urban parks will be created in areas where fragmented habitat or degraded lands may need restoration to increase their ability to support biodiversity conservation as well as climate change adaptation and mitigation, which are priorities under both programs.
• As sites for ecological corridors and national urban parks are identified, the 2 billion trees commitment can support these priorities by working with Parks Canada to assess where the planting of trees would contribute to improve the natural state and/or ecological function of these sites.

Wildfire and flood preparedness

Flood Preparedness (ECCC)

Q1. What is the $3M ECCC is receiving being used for?

• Budget 2021 provided $63.8M over three years for the Federal Flood Hazard Identification and Mapping Program, a joint initiative between Natural Resources Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada, and Public Safety Canada, to work with provinces and territories to complete flood maps for higher-risk areas in Canada.
• The program will provide flood data and maps for communities in Canada at higher risk of flooding. This information will help keep Canadians safer from floods as it supports flood prevention, mitigation, response, and planning activities.
• As part of this program, ECCC will receive $13.4 million over three years to advance flood mapping practices and support the development of flood maps that integrate climate change and uncertainty.
• ECCC is receiving $3,224,756 in the Supplementary Estimates C for the first year of the program to:
  • Work with colleagues in the Provinces and Territories to set up a community of practice for floodplain mapping;
  • collaborate with academics to advance science to incorporate climate change considerations into floodplain mapping; and
  • develop the methodology to provide, improve, and support the historical reanalysis of conditions and streamflow information.

Q2. What is ECCC’s role with respect to flooding and flood mapping?

• ECCC’s Meteorological Service of Canada is the authoritative source for data and information on weather, water quantity, climate, ice and air quality conditions across Canada.
• The Meteorological Service of Canada supports provincial and territorial flood forecasting centres by:
  • monitoring and predicting weather conditions that may influence flooding (i.e., precipitation, snow pack)
  • measuring and monitoring water levels and flows
  • providing expert interpretation by meteorologists and hydrologists to assess flood risks and to inform decisions on flood mitigation and emergency management measures
• ECCC will also support NRCan in developing flood maps under the Federal Flood Hazard Identification and Mapping Program by ensuring the maps accurately reflect local hydrology as well as uncertainty due to a changing climate.

Q3. What can we expect for the upcoming flooding season?

• Preliminary assessments indicate that the likelihood of flooding for the majority of regions is average or normal but there are some areas of higher risk due to above average snowpack, soil moisture and precipitation forecast.
• Forecasts this far out are subject to a higher degree of uncertainty and Canadians should always pay attention to the local forecasts and warnings available in their area as conditions can change rapidly.
• The Meteorological Service of Canada works closely with provincial and territorial partners, both at the regional and national levels, to gain an understanding of local and regional flood conditions, and provides weekly reports on flood and weather conditions to Public Safety Canada’s Government Operations Centre.

Q4. How will Parks Canada use the funding for wildfire management?

• The 2021-22 Supplementary Estimates (C) include $7.5 million for wildfire resilience in voted program expenditures as well as $1.2 million in the associated Employee Benefits Plan, for a total of $8.7 million.
• This funding supports prevention and response measures for wildfires that originate in, traverse through, or otherwise threaten Parks Canada-administered lands and adjacent communities.
• The incremental funding enhances the capacity of Parks Canada’s National Fire Management program and will strengthen the wildfire resilience of Parks Canada’s protected areas, and will enhance visitor safety and the protection of the built facilities, natural and cultural assets, ecosystems and wildlife for which Parks Canada is responsible.

Q5. What is Parks Canada’s role in wildfire management?

• Under the Canada National Parks Act, Parks Canada is responsible for managing wildland fire activity across the federal lands under its jurisdiction.
• Parks Canada is the only federal organization that is an operational wildfire management organization, with similar roles and capabilities as any provincial-territorial wildfire agency. Parks Canada is responsible for managing wildland fire across 350,195 km² of federal Crown lands (approximately the size of Germany or six times the land mass of Nova Scotia).
  • This includes a number of iconic town sites including Banff, Jasper and Waterton, as well as critical infrastructure including the Trans Canada Highway and railways.
• Parks Canada provides operational wildfire resources to provinces and territories through resource exchange agreements, as well as international partners. As the only federal organization with operational wildfire resources to contribute to requests for support Parks Canada is proud to have deployed:
  • 180 personnel in support of 5 provinces and territories in 2021, including a total of 143 personnel deployed to assist with the wildfires in British Columbia.
  • 13 personnel to Australia and 25 personnel to the United States (Oregon state) in 2019/2020 to support those jurisdictions in fighting catastrophic wildfires.
• For the upcoming 2022 fire season, Parks Canada has 22 4-person fire crews across Canada (over 80 personnel total), and a roster of 5 20-person National Incident Management Teams (over 100 personnel total) that can be dispatched to manage all aspects of high complexity fires or incidents.

Q6. How is climate change impacting Parks Canada’s ability to manage wildfires?

• Climate change is driving more intense, faster moving and longer lasting wildfires, increasing risk to the safety and security of Canadians, to economic activity, and to critical infrastructure.
• Canada, including Parks Canada, is facing wildfire resource and capacity challenges as the frequency and damages resulting from wildfires are increasing.
• To help mitigate these risks, Budget 2021 provided $100.6 million over five years, starting in 2021-22, and no ongoing funding to the Parks Canada Agency to enhance wildfire preparedness in Canada’s national parks. However, this amount included existing resources resulting in an actual net new resources for wildfire of $52.5M over five years.
• Parks Canada collaborates with federal, provincial, territorial, municipal, Indigenous and international governments as well as the academic, non-profit, and private sectors to prepare for and respond to wildfires as well as to better understand, prevent, and manage increasing risks as a result of climate change.