Page 13: Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document - Enteric Protozoa: Giardia and Cryptosporidium
Appendix C: Other enteric waterborne protozoans of interest: Toxoplasma gondii, Cyclospora cayetanensis and Entamoeba histolytica
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate, intracellular parasite that affects almost all warm-blooded animals, including humans. Itis usually transmitted by ingestion of tissue cysts through consumption of raw or undercooked infected meat, by ingestion of sporulated oocysts through consumption of contaminated food or water or after handling contaminated soil or infected cat faeces. Oocysts are extremely resistant to environmental conditions, including drying, and appear to retain their infectivity for several months (at temperatures of −5°C) (Dubey, 1998). Although this organism tends to cause mild flu-like symptoms, it can be life-threatening for immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women. Infection can result in mental retardation, loss of vision, hearing impairment and mortality in congenitally infected children. Little is known about the distribution of this organism in water sources; however, oocysts have been reported to survive for up to 17 months in tap water. There have been six reported human outbreaks of toxoplasmosis linked to ingestion of contaminated soil and water, including an outbreak in British Columbia in 1995 (Karanis et al., 2007). This outbreak involved 110 acute cases, including 42 pregnant women and 11 neonates (Bowie et al., 1997), and was thought to be due to contamination of a water reservoir by domestic and wild cat faeces (Isaac-Renton et al., 1998; Aramini et al., 1999). Limited information is available on the efficacy of water treatment processes in removing or inactivating T. gondii. However, because of its size, it should be readily removed by conventional coagulation/sedimentation and filtration processes. In effect, water treatment processes applied for the removal/inactivation of Giardia and Cryptosporidium should be effective against this organism.
Cyclospora cayetanensis is an obligate, intracellular coccidian parasite whose only natural host is humans (Eberhard et al., 2000). Cyclosporiasis has been reported worldwide but appears to be endemic throughout the tropics (Soave, 1996). Exact routes of transmission have yet to be elucidated; however, person-to-person transmission is unlikely (i.e., unsporulated oocysts are shed in faeces and require a period of maturation). Transmission is likely through food and water that have been contaminated with human faeces. Cyclospora cayetanensis has been detected in environmental samples, including water and wastewater, but detection still represents a challenge; few prevalence studies exist owing to the lack of sensitive methods, including methods to assess viability and infectivity. Cyclospora cayetanensis infection causes symptoms that mimic those caused by Cryptosporidium (i.e., nausea, anorexia, diarrhoea, etc.). Illness is usually self-limiting, but long-term health effects have been reported, including Reiter's syndrome. Epidemiological evidence strongly suggests that water can transmit C. cayetanensis. The first outbreak of cyclosporiasis to be associated with drinking water occurred in 1990 among hospital staff in Chicago, Illinois (Karanis et al., 2007), and was linked to a chlorinated water supply, suggesting the C. cayetanensis is resistant to levels of chlorine used in drinking water treatment. Although the efficacy of drinking water treatment processes for removal and/or inactivation of C. cayetenensis has not been evaluated, removal by conventional coagulation and filtration should be at least as effective as for Cryptosporidium, given that C. cayetanenis oocysts are larger.
Entamoeba histolytica is an obligate parasite that affects humans and other primates. Humans are the only reservoirs of significance, shedding trophozoites, cysts or both in their faeces. Entamoeba histolytica can be transmitted through ingestion of faecally contaminated water and food, but person-to-person contact is thought to be the primary route of transmission. Most infections are asymptomatic, but some can cause serious illness (i.e., amoebiasis). In the case of symptomatic infections, diarrhoea, fever and abdominal pain are common. More serious health effects, including chronic colitis, lower abscesses and death, have been reported (Kucik et al., 2004). Entamoeba histolytica cysts are resistant to environmental degradation; however, their survival is primarily a function of temperature. Cysts are rapidly killed by modest heat and freezing (Gillin and Diamond, 1980). Although no waterborne outbreaks of amoebiasis have been reported in Canada, outbreaks have been reported in the United States and elsewhere (Karanis et al., 2007). Outbreaks have occurred when chlorinated water became contaminated with sewage. Limited information is available on the efficacy of water treatment processes in removing or inactivating Entamoeba histolytica. However, because of its large cysts, it should be readily removed by conventional coagulation/sedimentation and filtration processes. In effect, water treatment processes applied for the removal/inactivation of Giardia and Cryptosporidium should be effective against this organism.
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