Recent Immigrants in Metropolitan Areas: Edmonton—A Comparative Profile Based on the 2001 Census
Part D: Participation in the Economy
Participation in the labour market
Labour force participation lower the more recent the arrival
Very recent immigrants are not as active in the labour market as the Canadian-born. The difference in labour force participation between very recent immigrants and the Canadian-born is twelve percentage points for women and five percentage points for men. Labour force participation of immigrants who have been in Canada for a longer period of time is more like that of the Canadian-born. A pattern of adjustment and increasing involvement of immigrants in the Canadian labour market with longer stay is evident in all three age groups, for both men and women.
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | 43,710 | 98,030 | 55,140 | 196,870 |
Immigrants | 4,690 | 22,270 | 19,900 | 46,860 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,140 | 10,110 | 15,630 | 26,870 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,460 | 8,570 | 3,430 | 14,450 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,110 | 3,600 | 850 | 5,550 |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | 47,510 | 111,480 | 64,110 | 223,090 |
Immigrants | 4,390 | 23,620 | 24,950 | 52,960 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,230 | 11,350 | 20,130 | 32,710 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,350 | 8,190 | 3,690 | 14,220 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 820 | 4,080 | 1,140 | 6,030 |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | 91,220 | 209,500 | 119,250 | 419,960 |
Immigrants | 9,090 | 45,890 | 44,850 | 99,820 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2,360 | 21,470 | 35,760 | 59,580 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 4,810 | 16,760 | 7,110 | 28,680 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,920 | 7,670 | 1,980 | 11,570 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | |||||
Canadian-born | 71% | 83% | 71% | 76% | 196,870 |
Immigrants | 65% | 77% | 69% | 72% | 46,860 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 76% | 84% | 69% | 74% | 26,870 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 62% | 75% | 69% | 71% | 14,450 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 60% | 66% | 63% | 64% | 5,550 |
Men | |||||
Canadian-born | 74% | 93% | 85% | 86% | 223,090 |
Immigrants | 64% | 91% | 85% | 85% | 52,960 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 79% | 92% | 85% | 87% | 32,710 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 61% | 91% | 84% | 83% | 14,220 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 57% | 88% | 83% | 81% | 6,030 |
Total | |||||
Canadian-born | 73% | 88% | 78% | 81% | 419,960 |
Immigrants | 65% | 84% | 77% | 78% | 99,820 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 78% | 88% | 77% | 81% | 59,580 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 62% | 82% | 76% | 76% | 28,680 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 59% | 76% | 73% | 72% | 11,570 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Labour force participation for the very recent immigrant cohort increased between 1996 and 2001. The young and old age cohorts showed significant gains while the middle age group saw some gains for men and declines for women. Labour force participation increased most among very recent immigrants: by four percentage points for women and eight percentage points for men, compared to changes of no more than two percentage points for other groups.
Figure D-1: Immigrants by period of immigration and Canadian-born—15 to 64 years of age—labour force participation rates, by age and gender, Edmonton Census Metropolitan Area, 2001
Note: Figures D-1 and D-2 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed, (actively looking for work).
Pattern of adjustment similar for most levels of education
Generally speaking, the higher the level of education, the greater the proportion of people who participate in the labour market. This observation holds for the Canadian-born as well as for all three cohorts of immigrants, with one significant exception: men who immigrated after 1985 and who at the time of the 2001 Census had only attended elementary school had a higher participation rate than those with some high school.
Less than grade 9 | Some high school | High school diploma | College or trade diploma | University degree | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||||
Canadian-born | 1,480 | 41,700 | 52,130 | 65,430 | 36,140 | 196,870 |
Immigrants | 2,660 | 7,720 | 10,450 | 14,570 | 11,470 | 46,860 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,490 | 4,410 | 5,850 | 9,010 | 6,120 | 26,870 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 870 | 2,500 | 3,420 | 4,180 | 3,500 | 14,450 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 300 | 820 | 1,170 | 1,380 | 1,860 | 5,550 |
Men | ||||||
Canadian-born | 3,630 | 53,650 | 51,380 | 79,690 | 34,760 | 223,090 |
Immigrants | 2,560 | 8,640 | 9,200 | 18,730 | 13,830 | 52,960 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,500 | 5,090 | 5,310 | 12,810 | 7,980 | 32,710 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 830 | 2,690 | 2,790 | 4,420 | 3,500 | 14,220 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 210 | 850 | 1,100 | 1,510 | 2,360 | 6,030 |
Total | ||||||
Canadian-born | 5,110 | 95,340 | 103,500 | 145,120 | 70,900 | 419,960 |
Immigrants | 5,220 | 16,360 | 19,650 | 33,300 | 25,310 | 99,820 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 3,000 | 9,500 | 11,170 | 21,820 | 14,100 | 59,580 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 1,710 | 5,190 | 6,210 | 8,600 | 6,980 | 28,680 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 520 | 1,660 | 2,280 | 2,890 | 4,220 | 11,570 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
As well, immigrants with only elementary schooling, even very recent immigrants, are equally or more active in the labour market than the Canadian-born with similar levels of education. But at all other education levels, there is a common pattern of relatively low participation rates for very recent immigrants and convergence to the rates of the Canadian-born for earlier cohorts.
Less than grade 9 | Some high school | High school diploma | College or trade diploma | University degree | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||||
Canadian-born | 37% | 62% | 79% | 83% | 86% | 76% |
Immigrants | 49% | 61% | 71% | 80% | 81% | 72% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 49% | 66% | 74% | 80% | 84% | 74% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 51% | 57% | 69% | 84% | 81% | 71% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 47% | 53% | 62% | 71% | 71% | 64% |
Men | ||||||
Canadian-born | 64% | 75% | 89% | 92% | 92% | 86% |
Immigrants | 75% | 74% | 84% | 90% | 90% | 85% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 71% | 81% | 88% | 89% | 90% | 87% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 77% | 68% | 78% | 91% | 93% | 83% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 79% | 61% | 80% | 89% | 86% | 81% |
Total | ||||||
Canadian-born | 53% | 69% | 84% | 88% | 89% | 81% |
Immigrants | 59% | 67% | 76% | 85% | 86% | 78% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 59% | 73% | 80% | 85% | 87% | 81% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 61% | 62% | 73% | 87% | 87% | 76% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 58% | 57% | 70% | 80% | 79% | 72% |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
As mentioned previously, labour force participation by very recent immigrants increased by four percentage points for women and eight percentage points for men between 1996 and 2001, while that of other groups showed little change. The increase among very recent immigrants occurred at all levels of education, except for women holding a post-secondary diploma or degree.
Figure D-2: Immigrants by period of immigration and Canadian-born—15 to 64 years of age—labour force participation rates, by level of education and gender, Edmonton Census Metropolitan Area, 2001
Note: Figures D-1 and D-2 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed, (actively looking for work).
Knowledge of English important for labour force participation
Most immigrants report that they have knowledge of either English or French when they immigrate to Canada. As reported at the time of the 2001 Census, the large majority of both men and women who immigrated during the 1990s and settled in Edmonton have knowledge of English. Those who do not speak English are not nearly as active in the labour market as those who do. The gap in labour force participation between those who speak English and those who do not is larger for women than for men.
Population | Labour force | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
No English | No English | English | Total | |
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 196,740 | 196,870 |
Immigrants | 2,690 | 1,170 | 45,700 | 46,860 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 750 | 330 | 26,550 | 26,870 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 1,190 | 490 | 13,960 | 14,450 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 750 | 340 | 5,190 | 5,550 |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 223,010 | 223,090 |
Immigrants | 1,620 | 1,060 | 51,900 | 52,960 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 560 | 380 | 32,360 | 32,710 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 640 | 390 | 13,840 | 14,220 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 420 | 310 | 5,720 | 6,030 |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 419,750 | 419,960 |
Immigrants | 4,320 | 2,230 | 97,590 | 99,820 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,300 | 700 | 58,860 | 59,580 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 1,830 | 860 | 27,810 | 28,680 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,190 | 660 | 10,920 | 11,570 |
Population share | Labour force participation rate |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|
No English |
No English | English | Total | |
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 76% | 76% |
Immigrants | 4% | 43% | 73% | 72% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2% | 44% | 75% | 74% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 6% | 41% | 73% | 71% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 9% | 45% | 66% | 64% |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 86% | 86% |
Immigrants | 3% | 65% | 86% | 85% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1% | 68% | 87% | 87% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 4% | 61% | 83% | 83% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 6% | 73% | 82% | 81% |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 81% | 81% |
Immigrants | 3% | 52% | 79% | 78% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2% | 54% | 81% | 81% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 5% | 47% | 78% | 76% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 7% | 55% | 73% | 72% |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Unemployment higher during initial years
Very recent immigrants aged 25 to 64 are more likely to experience unemployment than those who have been in the country for a longer period of time. For instance, very recent immigrant men age 25 to 64 in Edmonton experienced an unemployment rate of 7% and very recent immigrant women in the same age group experienced rates of 7% to 9%, varying by age. Unemployment is significantly lower among persons who immigrated before 1996, except in the youngest age group.
The overall unemployment rate in 2001 was lower than in 1996 by two percentage points. All groups shown in the Tables D-7 and D-8 shared in the decline, which was for the most part greatest for the young and for very recent immigrants. A decline of more than ten percentage points was experienced by very recent immigrant men and women in the oldest age group.
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | 4,300 | 4,890 | 1,810 | 10,990 |
Immigrants | 480 | 1,280 | 700 | 2,450 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 120 | 440 | 510 | 1,060 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 290 | 530 | 140 | 960 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 80 | 320 | 60 | 450 |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | 5,610 | 4,390 | 2,220 | 12,210 |
Immigrants | 540 | 1,110 | 980 | 2,620 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 160 | 480 | 740 | 1,380 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 280 | 350 | 170 | 790 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 100 | 290 | 80 | 470 |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | 9,900 | 9,280 | 4,030 | 23,200 |
Immigrants | 1,010 | 2,390 | 1,670 | 5,070 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 280 | 900 | 1,250 | 2,420 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 560 | 880 | 310 | 1,750 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 180 | 610 | 130 | 910 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | |||||
Canadian-born | 10% | 5% | 3% | 6% | 10,990 |
Immigrants | 10% | 6% | 3% | 5% | 2,450 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 10% | 4% | 3% | 4% | 1,060 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 12% | 6% | 4% | 7% | 960 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 7% | 9% | 7% | 8% | 450 |
Men | |||||
Canadian-born | 12% | 4% | 3% | 5% | 12,210 |
Immigrants | 12% | 5% | 4% | 5% | 2,620 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 13% | 4% | 4% | 4% | 1,380 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 12% | 4% | 4% | 6% | 790 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 12% | 7% | 7% | 8% | 470 |
Total | |||||
Canadian-born | 11% | 4% | 3% | 6% | 23,200 |
Immigrants | 11% | 5% | 4% | 5% | 5,070 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 12% | 4% | 3% | 4% | 2,420 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 12% | 5% | 4% | 6% | 1,750 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 9% | 8% | 7% | 8% | 910 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Earlier cohorts have lower unemployment rates than more recent cohorts at most levels of education. For example, men who immigrated after 1995 and who have a high school diploma have an unemployment rate of 9%; the unemployment rate drops to 7% for immigrants who landed between 1986 and 1995 and to 6% for those arriving before 1986. However, immigrant women with a high school diploma who landed between 1986 and 1995 experienced higher rates of unemployment than very recent immigrants.
All groups shown in Table D-10 had a lower unemployment rate in 2001 than in 1996. The unemployment rate declined more for recent immigrant women with education below the university level than for earlier immigrants and the Canadian-born. Generally, the improvement was greater the lower the level of education.
Recent immigrant men who do not speak English are more likely to be unemployed than those that do, but this pattern does not hold for women. The difference in unemployment rates between those who speak English and those who do not varies from five percentage points lower to four percentage points higher, depending on gender and period of immigration.
Less than grade 9 | Some high school | High school diploma | College or trade diploma | University degree | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||||
Canadian-born | 210 | 3,240 | 2,900 | 3,250 | 1,410 | 10,990 |
Immigrants | 120 | 410 | 640 | 640 | 640 | 2,450 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 70 | 140 | 260 | 360 | 230 | 1,060 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 50 | 200 | 310 | 190 | 200 | 960 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 10 | 70 | 80 | 80 | 210 | 450 |
Men | ||||||
Canadian-born | 260 | 4,570 | 3,170 | 3,140 | 1,090 | 12,210 |
Immigrants | 150 | 440 | 630 | 790 | 630 | 2,620 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 100 | 230 | 330 | 480 | 220 | 1,380 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 30 | 170 | 200 | 220 | 170 | 790 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 0 | 40 | 100 | 100 | 220 | 470 |
Total | ||||||
Canadian-born | 470 | 7,810 | 6,070 | 6,370 | 2,490 | 23,200 |
Immigrants | 280 | 860 | 1,250 | 1,430 | 1,260 | 5,070 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 180 | 370 | 590 | 830 | 450 | 2,420 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 80 | 380 | 500 | 420 | 370 | 1,750 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 30 | 110 | 180 | 180 | 440 | 910 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Less than grade 9 | Some high school | High school diploma | College or trade diploma | University degree | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||||
Canadian-born | 14% | 8% | 6% | 5% | 4% | 6% |
Immigrants | 5% | 5% | 6% | 4% | 6% | 5% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 5% | 3% | 4% | 4% | 4% | 4% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 6% | 8% | 9% | 5% | 6% | 7% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 3% | 9% | 7% | 5% | 11% | 8% |
Men | ||||||
Canadian-born | 7% | 9% | 6% | 4% | 3% | 5% |
Immigrants | 6% | 5% | 7% | 4% | 5% | 5% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 7% | 5% | 6% | 4% | 3% | 4% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 4% | 6% | 7% | 5% | 5% | 6% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 0% | 5% | 9% | 6% | 9% | 8% |
Total | ||||||
Canadian-born | 9% | 8% | 6% | 4% | 4% | 6% |
Immigrants | 5% | 5% | 6% | 4% | 5% | 5% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 6% | 4% | 5% | 4% | 3% | 4% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 5% | 7% | 8% | 5% | 5% | 6% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 6% | 6% | 8% | 6% | 10% | 8% |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Labour force | Unemployed | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
No English | No English | English | Total | |
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 10,980 | 10,990 |
Immigrants | 1,170 | 60 | 2,390 | 2,450 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 330 | 30 | 1,000 | 1,060 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 490 | 20 | 930 | 960 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 340 | 10 | 440 | 450 |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 12,210 | 12,210 |
Immigrants | 1,060 | 90 | 2,530 | 2,620 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 380 | 30 | 1,340 | 1,380 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 390 | 30 | 750 | 790 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 310 | 40 | 450 | 470 |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 23,190 | 23,200 |
Immigrants | 2,230 | 150 | 4,930 | 5,070 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 700 | 60 | 2,350 | 2,420 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 860 | 50 | 1,710 | 1,750 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 660 | 50 | 880 | 910 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Share of labour force | Unemployment rate | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
No English | No English | English | Total | |
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 6% | 6% |
Immigrants | 2% | 5% | 5% | 5% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1% | 8% | 4% | 4% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 3% | 4% | 7% | 7% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 6% | 3% | 8% | 8% |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 5% | 5% |
Immigrants | 2% | 8% | 5% | 5% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1% | 8% | 4% | 4% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 3% | 6% | 5% | 6% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 5% | 11% | 8% | 8% |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | – | – | 6% | 6% |
Immigrants | 2% | 7% | 5% | 5% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1% | 8% | 4% | 4% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 3% | 5% | 6% | 6% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 6% | 7% | 8% | 8% |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Share of men and women with jobs increases with length of stay
Three in five very recent immigrant women aged 15 to 64 are employed, compared to just under three in four Canadian-born women. For men the difference is smaller: three in four very recent immigrants are employed compared to eight in ten Canadian-born men. As shown in the previous pages, these differences in employment rates reflect mainly differences in labour force participation rates.
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | 39,410 | 93,130 | 53,330 | 185,870 |
Immigrants | 4,230 | 21,000 | 19,210 | 44,430 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,020 | 9,680 | 15,130 | 25,820 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,170 | 8,040 | 3,290 | 13,500 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,040 | 3,280 | 800 | 5,110 |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | 41,910 | 107,090 | 61,890 | 210,890 |
Immigrants | 3,850 | 22,510 | 23,970 | 50,330 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,070 | 10,880 | 19,390 | 31,330 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,070 | 7,840 | 3,520 | 13,430 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 710 | 3,790 | 1,060 | 5,550 |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | 81,320 | 200,220 | 115,220 | 396,750 |
Immigrants | 8,080 | 43,500 | 43,180 | 94,760 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2,090 | 20,570 | 34,530 | 57,180 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 4,250 | 15,880 | 6,810 | 26,930 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,750 | 7,070 | 1,850 | 10,660 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
Among immigrants who landed before 1986, employment is more common than among the more recently landed. Generally, immigrant participation in the labour market increases with the length of stay in Canada.
In 2001, the incidence of employment was the same or higher among all immigrant cohorts than in 1996. The changes were generally greater for younger and older groups than for those at prime working age. Immigrants experienced a greater change than the Canadian-born, and recent immigrants experienced larger gains than earlier immigrants.
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | |||||
Canadian-born | 64% | 79% | 69% | 72% | 185,870 |
Immigrants | 58% | 73% | 66% | 68% | 44,430 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 68% | 80% | 67% | 71% | 25,820 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 55% | 71% | 66% | 67% | 13,500 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 57% | 60% | 59% | 59% | 5,110 |
Men | |||||
Canadian-born | 65% | 90% | 82% | 81% | 210,890 |
Immigrants | 56% | 86% | 82% | 81% | 50,330 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 68% | 88% | 82% | 83% | 31,330 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 54% | 87% | 80% | 78% | 13,430 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 50% | 82% | 77% | 75% | 5,550 |
Total | |||||
Canadian-born | 65% | 84% | 75% | 77% | 396,750 |
Immigrants | 57% | 79% | 74% | 74% | 94,760 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 69% | 84% | 75% | 77% | 57,180 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 55% | 78% | 73% | 72% | 26,930 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 54% | 70% | 68% | 66% | 10,660 |
Note: Tables D-1 to D-14 describe labour force participation, employment and unemployment in the week before the 2001 Census, May 6-12, 2001. A person is in the labour force if he/she is employed or unemployed (actively looking for work).
The jobs of recent immigrants
Part-time jobs more common for very recent immigrants aged 25 to 64
The proportion of employed persons who work part-time varies considerably by age and gender, both for immigrants and the Canadian-born. Part-time employment is most common in the 15-24 age group. Among women aged 25 to 64, 25% to 29% work part-time, varying by cohort, while for men the share is 5% to 8%, again varying by cohort.
Part-time employment is more common for very recent immigrants of either gender than for other immigrant cohorts and the Canadian-born, with the exception of very recent immigrant women aged 15 to 24.
The share of jobs that was part-time was lower in 2001 than in 1996 for the 25-44 and 45-64 age groups. The changes were in the order of zero to four percentage points and three to six percentage points for very recent immigrants.
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | 26,200 | 26,800 | 15,110 | 68,100 |
Immigrants | 2,670 | 5,650 | 5,610 | 13,920 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 640 | 2,590 | 4,520 | 7,740 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 1,600 | 2,280 | 900 | 4,770 |
Immigrated 1996-1999 | 440 | 790 | 200 | 1,420 |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | 20,630 | 5,810 | 4,530 | 30,960 |
Immigrants | 1,970 | 1,670 | 1,640 | 5,270 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 460 | 780 | 1,240 | 2,480 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 1,170 | 520 | 300 | 1,980 |
Immigrated 1996-1999 | 340 | 370 | 100 | 810 |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | 46,840 | 32,600 | 19,630 | 99,070 |
Immigrants | 4,630 | 7,320 | 7,240 | 19,180 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 1,090 | 3,360 | 5,750 | 10,200 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,770 | 2,800 | 1,200 | 6,760 |
Immigrated 1996-1999 | 770 | 1,170 | 290 | 2,230 |
Note: Tables D-15 and D-16 do not include immigrants who landed in 2000 or 2001. Only persons who landed before 2000 are included among immigrants and very recent immigrants. Part-time employment is defined as having worked less than 30 hours per week during most of the weeks worked in the year 2000.
15 to 24 years | 25 to 44 years | 45 to 64 years | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Women | ||||
Canadian-born | 56% | 26% | 26% | 33% |
Immigrants | 58% | 25% | 27% | 29% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 51% | 25% | 27% | 27% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 62% | 25% | 25% | 31% |
Immigrated 1996-1999 | 53% | 28% | 29% | 33% |
Men | ||||
Canadian-born | 41% | 5% | 7% | 13% |
Immigrants | 45% | 7% | 6% | 10% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 37% | 7% | 6% | 7% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 47% | 6% | 8% | 13% |
Immigrated 1996-1999 | 55% | 12% | 11% | 18% |
Total | ||||
Canadian-born | 48% | 15% | 16% | 23% |
Immigrants | 52% | 16% | 16% | 19% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 44% | 15% | 15% | 17% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 55% | 16% | 16% | 23% |
Immigrated 1996-1999 | 53% | 20% | 19% | 25% |
Note: Tables D-15 and D-16 do not include immigrants who landed in 2000 or 2001. Only persons who landed before 2000 are included among immigrants and very recent immigrants. Part-time employment is defined as having worked less than 30 hours per week during most of the weeks worked in the year 2000.
Many recent immigrants in sales and services, health and science occupations
Employed immigrants are more likely than their Canadian-born counterparts to work in sales and service occupations and processing occupations. They are also more likely than the Canadian-born to work in health and science jobs. One-half of employed recent immigrant women and one-third of employed recent immigrant men work in sales and service jobs and processing jobs, compared to one quarter of the Canadian-born. The differences between immigrants and the Canadian-born are greater for women than for men. By contrast, management and social occupations, which are favoured by the Canadian-born, account for a smaller share of the jobs of recent immigrants.
Figure D-3: Immigrants by period of immigration and Canadian-born—employed 25 to 64 years of age—occupation groups, by gender, Edmonton Census Metropolitan Area, 2001 (percentage distribution)
Note: Job characteristics presented in Figures D-3 to D-6 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
Sales and services | Processing | Admin- istrative |
Mana- gement and social sciences |
Trades, transport | Health, science | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | |||||||
Canadian-born | 31,100 | 3,420 | 50,650 | 37,830 | 3,520 | 19,950 | 146,470 |
Immigrants | 12,710 | 2,530 | 9,270 | 8,490 | 990 | 6,260 | 40,210 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 6,840 | 1,230 | 6,650 | 5,780 | 560 | 3,750 | 24,810 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 4,190 | 980 | 2,100 | 1,920 | 360 | 1,800 | 11,330 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,700 | 300 | 500 | 790 | 90 | 700 | 4,070 |
Men | |||||||
Canadian-born | 25,790 | 13,030 | 15,470 | 39,670 | 52,680 | 22,360 | 168,980 |
Immigrants | 7,940 | 4,150 | 3,430 | 9,800 | 13,150 | 8,010 | 46,480 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 4,720 | 2,160 | 2,400 | 6,980 | 8,880 | 5,130 | 30,290 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,260 | 1,370 | 760 | 1,930 | 3,300 | 1,760 | 11,360 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 970 | 620 | 260 | 890 | 980 | 1,140 | 4,850 |
Total | |||||||
Canadian-born | 56,890 | 16,450 | 66,110 | 77,500 | 56,200 | 42,300 | 315,440 |
Immigrants | 20,650 | 6,680 | 12,690 | 18,290 | 14,130 | 14,250 | 86,680 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 11,550 | 3,430 | 9,080 | 12,760 | 9,430 | 8,880 | 55,090 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 6,440 | 2,350 | 2,860 | 3,850 | 3,650 | 3,540 | 22,680 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 2,670 | 910 | 770 | 1,670 | 1,060 | 1,850 | 8,920 |
Women | |||||||
Canadian-born | 21% | 2% | 35% | 26% | 2% | 14% | 146,470 |
Immigrants | 32% | 6% | 23% | 21% | 2% | 16% | 40,210 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 28% | 5% | 27% | 23% | 2% | 15% | 24,810 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 37% | 9% | 18% | 17% | 3% | 16% | 11,330 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 42% | 7% | 12% | 19% | 2% | 17% | 4,070 |
Men | |||||||
Canadian-born | 15% | 8% | 9% | 23% | 31% | 13% | 168,980 |
Immigrants | 17% | 9% | 7% | 21% | 28% | 17% | 46,480 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 16% | 7% | 8% | 23% | 29% | 17% | 30,290 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 20% | 12% | 7% | 17% | 29% | 15% | 11,360 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 20% | 13% | 5% | 18% | 20% | 23% | 4,850 |
Total | |||||||
Canadian-born | 18% | 5% | 21% | 25% | 18% | 13% | 315,440 |
Immigrants | 24% | 8% | 15% | 21% | 16% | 16% | 86,680 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 21% | 6% | 16% | 23% | 17% | 16% | 55,090 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 28% | 10% | 13% | 17% | 16% | 16% | 22,680 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 30% | 10% | 9% | 19% | 12% | 21% | 8,920 |
Note: Job characteristics presented in Tables D-17 to D-20 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
The distribution of occupations of very recent immigrants is quite similar to that of earlier cohorts, with two major exceptions: a higher share of occupations of very recent immigrant men are in the health and science fields, with a lower share in trades and transport industries. This is something specific to the latest cohort, as five years earlier in the 1996 Census the prevalence of health and science occupations among employed immigrants was quite similar across all cohorts, including very recent immigrants.
Many recent immigrants in manufacturing and hospitality sectors
In Edmonton, a larger proportion of the jobs of recent immigrants aged 25 to 64 than of the Canadian-born are in manufacturing industries and in hospitality and other services industries. By contrast, construction and transportation industries account for a smaller share of jobs of recent immigrants than of the Canadian-born.
Compared to 1996, employment hospitality and other services industries among the very recent immigrant cohort is lower and employment in business services industries is more prevalent among recent immigrant men.
Manu- facturing |
Construc-tion and Transpor-tation | Trade | Busi-ness services | Public sector |
Hospitality and other services | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | |||||||
Canadian-born | 10,040 | 11,930 | 22,350 | 24,030 | 60,060 | 18,060 | 146,500 |
Immigrants | 4,020 | 1,580 | 5,460 | 5,210 | 15,500 | 8,470 | 40,200 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2,140 | 1,130 | 3,360 | 3,370 | 10,410 | 4,430 | 24,800 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 1,410 | 300 | 1,540 | 1,420 | 3,810 | 2,850 | 11,300 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 470 | 150 | 560 | 430 | 1,290 | 1,180 | 4,100 |
Men | |||||||
Canadian-born | 29,600 | 46,150 | 30,040 | 22,390 | 28,090 | 12,740 | 169,000 |
Immigrants | 9,820 | 8,980 | 6,740 | 6,340 | 8,070 | 6,530 | 46,500 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 5,850 | 6,610 | 4,380 | 4,260 | 5,560 | 3,630 | 30,300 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,800 | 1,820 | 1,620 | 1,270 | 1,760 | 2,110 | 11,400 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,200 | 560 | 750 | 820 | 750 | 780 | 4,800 |
Total | |||||||
Canadian-born | 39,620 | 58,070 | 52,380 | 46,430 | 88,150 | 30,790 | 315,400 |
Immigrants | 13,830 | 10,550 | 12,190 | 11,550 | 23,570 | 15,000 | 86,700 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 7,980 | 7,730 | 7,740 | 7,610 | 15,950 | 8,070 | 55,100 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 4,200 | 2,130 | 3,150 | 2,680 | 5,560 | 4,950 | 22,700 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,660 | 690 | 1,310 | 1,250 | 2,030 | 1,970 | 8,900 |
Women | |||||||
Canadian-born | 7% | 8% | 15% | 16% | 41% | 12% | 100% |
Immigrants | 10% | 4% | 14% | 13% | 39% | 21% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 9% | 5% | 14% | 14% | 42% | 18% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 12% | 3% | 14% | 13% | 34% | 25% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 11% | 4% | 14% | 11% | 32% | 29% | 100% |
Men | |||||||
Canadian-born | 18% | 27% | 18% | 13% | 17% | 8% | 100% |
Immigrants | 21% | 19% | 14% | 14% | 17% | 14% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 19% | 22% | 14% | 14% | 18% | 12% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 25% | 16% | 14% | 11% | 15% | 19% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 25% | 11% | 15% | 17% | 15% | 16% | 100% |
Total | |||||||
Canadian-born | 13% | 18% | 17% | 15% | 28% | 10% | 100% |
Immigrants | 16% | 12% | 14% | 13% | 27% | 17% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 14% | 14% | 14% | 14% | 29% | 15% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 19% | 9% | 14% | 12% | 24% | 22% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 19% | 8% | 15% | 14% | 23% | 22% | 100% |
Note: Job characteristics presented in Tables D-17 to D-20 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
Figure D-4: Immigrants by period of immigration and Canadian-born—employed 25 to 64 years of age—industry sector, by gender, Edmonton Census Metropolitan Area, 2001 (percentage distribution)
Note: Job characteristics presented in Figures D-3 to D-6 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
Skill requirements of jobs of recent immigrants generally lower
Generally speaking, the jobs of recent immigrants require lower skills than the jobs of the Canadian-born. Three in ten jobs of Canadian-born women require the highest level of skill, a university education. For women who landed after 1995, only two in ten jobs require a university education. For both men and women, the skill requirements of jobs of immigrants who landed before 1986 are closer to that of the Canadian-born.
No formal education | High school plus job training | College or trade apprenticeship | University | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | |||||
Canadian-born | 10,390 | 48,980 | 41,560 | 45,540 | 146,460 |
Immigrants | 6,130 | 13,190 | 10,510 | 10,390 | 40,210 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 3,020 | 7,920 | 6,620 | 7,270 | 24,810 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 2,180 | 4,000 | 2,920 | 2,240 | 11,330 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 920 | 1,280 | 980 | 900 | 4,080 |
Men | |||||
Canadian-born | 11,050 | 43,710 | 61,370 | 52,850 | 168,970 |
Immigrants | 4,720 | 10,760 | 16,160 | 14,840 | 46,480 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2,300 | 6,550 | 11,190 | 10,230 | 30,280 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 1,650 | 3,110 | 3,650 | 2,950 | 11,360 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 770 | 1,100 | 1,320 | 1,670 | 4,850 |
Total | |||||
Canadian-born | 21,440 | 92,680 | 102,930 | 98,400 | 315,440 |
Immigrants | 10,850 | 23,950 | 26,670 | 25,230 | 86,680 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 5,340 | 14,460 | 17,810 | 17,510 | 55,090 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 3,840 | 7,110 | 6,570 | 5,170 | 22,680 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 1,690 | 2,380 | 2,290 | 2,570 | 8,920 |
Women | |||||
Canadian-born | 7% | 33% | 28% | 31% | 100% |
Immigrants | 15% | 33% | 26% | 26% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 12% | 32% | 27% | 29% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 19% | 35% | 26% | 20% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 23% | 31% | 24% | 22% | 100% |
Men | |||||
Canadian-born | 7% | 26% | 36% | 31% | 100% |
Immigrants | 10% | 23% | 35% | 32% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 8% | 22% | 37% | 34% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 14% | 27% | 32% | 26% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 16% | 23% | 27% | 34% | 100% |
Total | |||||
Canadian-born | 7% | 29% | 33% | 31% | 100% |
Immigrants | 13% | 28% | 31% | 29% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 10% | 26% | 32% | 32% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 17% | 31% | 29% | 23% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 19% | 27% | 26% | 29% | 100% |
Note: Job characteristics presented in Tables D-17 to D-20 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
The information presented in Table D-19 does not directly indicate whether the skills of recent immigrants are fully or less than fully employed in the economy. To determine this, one has to compare the skill levels of jobs of employed recent immigrants with the level of education of employed recent immigrants. This is done in Table D-20 for persons holding a university degree.
Figure D-5: Immigrants by period of immigration and Canadian-born—employed 25 to 64 years of age—skill requirements of jobs, by gender, Edmonton Census Metropolitan Area, 2001 (percentage distribution)
Note: Job characteristics presented in Figures D-3 to D-6 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
Education of recent immigrants not fully utilized
The jobs of recent immigrants with a university degree do not require the same level of skill as the jobs of Canadian-born persons with a university degree. Seven in ten employed Canadian-born women with a university degree have a job requiring a university degree. But only four in ten employed recent immigrant women with university degrees have a job that requires a university degree. Three-quarters of Canadian-born men with a university degree but only three in five recent immigrant men with a university degree have a job requiring a university education.
No formal education | High school plus job training | College or trade apprenticeship | University | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | |||||
Canadian-born | 430 | 3,630 | 5,120 | 22,130 | 31,280 |
Immigrants | 560 | 2,040 | 2,050 | 5,580 | 10,220 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 160 | 800 | 1,000 | 3,650 | 5,600 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 230 | 790 | 710 | 1,340 | 3,060 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 170 | 450 | 340 | 600 | 1,550 |
Men | |||||
Canadian-born | 570 | 2,500 | 4,640 | 23,930 | 31,630 |
Immigrants | 510 | 1,440 | 2,230 | 8,710 | 12,880 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 140 | 660 | 1,260 | 5,560 | 7,620 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 220 | 470 | 620 | 1,840 | 3,150 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 140 | 320 | 360 | 1,310 | 2,120 |
Total | |||||
Canadian-born | 990 | 6,120 | 9,760 | 46,050 | 62,910 |
Immigrants | 1,070 | 3,480 | 4,280 | 14,280 | 23,100 |
Immigrated before 1986 | 330 | 1,450 | 2,250 | 9,200 | 13,220 |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 460 | 1,250 | 1,320 | 3,180 | 6,210 |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 310 | 770 | 700 | 1,900 | 3,680 |
Women | |||||
Canadian-born | 1% | 12% | 16% | 71% | 100% |
Immigrants | 5% | 20% | 20% | 55% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 3% | 14% | 18% | 65% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 7% | 26% | 23% | 44% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 11% | 29% | 22% | 38% | 100% |
Men | |||||
Canadian-born | 2% | 8% | 15% | 76% | 100% |
Immigrants | 4% | 11% | 17% | 68% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2% | 9% | 16% | 73% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 7% | 15% | 20% | 58% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 6% | 15% | 17% | 62% | 100% |
Total | |||||
Canadian-born | 2% | 10% | 16% | 73% | 100% |
Immigrants | 5% | 15% | 19% | 62% | 100% |
Immigrated before 1986 | 2% | 11% | 17% | 70% | 100% |
Immigrated 1986-1995 | 7% | 20% | 21% | 51% | 100% |
Immigrated 1996-2001 | 8% | 21% | 19% | 52% | 100% |
Note: Job characteristics presented in Tables D-17 to D-20 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
The skill requirements of jobs of very recent immigrants with university degrees increased significantly between 1996 and 2001. For both men and women, the share of jobs requiring a post-secondary diploma or degree was fourteen percentage points higher in 2001 than in 1996, and the share of jobs requiring high school or less was correspondingly smaller. Other groups also experienced an increase in the skill level of their jobs, but to a much smaller extent.
Figure D-6: Immigrants by period of immigration and Canadian-born —25-64 years of age—percentage of employed university graduates with job requiring university education, by gender, Edmonton Census Metropolitan Area, 2001
Note: Job characteristics presented in Figures D-3 to D-6 relate to jobs held at the time of the census or the job of longest duration from January 2000 to May 15, 2001. The information pertains to persons 25 to 64 years of age. Younger people are not included here since many of them are still in school, and their jobs tend to be short-term and part-time and less likely to be related to their education and career choices than the jobs of older adults. Occupation groups are defined in the Glossary.
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