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Report on policy options related to the topic of ageism targeting older Canadians

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Participating governments

Government of Ontario

Government of Nova Scotia

Government of New Brunswick

Government of Manitoba

Government of British Columbia

Government of Prince Edward Island

Government of Saskatchewan

Government of Alberta

Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Government of Northwest Territories

Government of Yukon

Government of Nunavut

Government of Canada

Québec contributes to the Federal, Provincial, Territorial Seniors Forum by sharing expertise, information and best practices. However, it does not subscribe to, or take part in, integrated federal, provincial, and territorial approaches to seniors. The Government of Québec intends to fully assume its responsibilities for seniors in Québec.

Acknowledgements

Prepared by Dr. Martine Lagacé, Dr. Linda Garcia, Dr. Tracey O'Sullivan and Samantha Oostlander (University of Ottawa), Dr. Mélanie Levasseur and Dr. Carine Bétrisey (University of Sherbrooke), and Margaret Gillis (International Longevity Centre Canada and Canadian Coalition Against Ageism) for the Federal, Provincial and Territorial (FPT) Forum of Ministers Responsible for Seniors. The views expressed in this report may not reflect the official position of a particular jurisdiction.

Executive summary

In March 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched a global report calling for urgent action to ‘combat ageism and better measurement and reporting to expose ageism for what it is-an insidious scourge on society.' Cognizant of the negative outcomes of ageism, governments, associations defending the rights of older adults, and researchers have recommended and/or put in place a string of initiatives aiming to combat ageism, or at least, to reduce its negative outcomes.

This report identifies strategies, approaches, and best practices to address ageism targeting older adults from the perspective of Canadians and researchers. It is based on a cross-content analysis of 2 Federal, Provincial and Territorial (FPT) Seniors Forum led reports, entitled a) An Examination of the Social and Economic Impacts of Ageism; and b) Consultations on the Social and Economic Impacts of Ageism in Canada: "What We Heard" Report, whereby ageism is reflected upon in 5 domains, namely: health and health care, employment and workforce, social inclusion, safety and security, media and social media. In addition, a literature review of 30 international scholarly papers (published within a 5 year period: 2019 to 2023) was conducted to identify strategies addressing ageism.

The objectives of the report are as follows:

  1. identify, through a cross-content analysis, previous or existing initiatives to counter ageism in Canada that address the related concerns and expectations of Canadians
  2. analyze the characteristics of these initiatives
  3. identify best practices, based on the results of objectives 1 and 2, in addressing ageism against older adults elsewhere in the world, and
  4. develop a set of policy options and recommendations for the most promising initiatives to address ageism against older adults, in terms of impact and effectiveness in the areas of health and health care, employment and workforce, social inclusion, safety and security, media and social media

Government reports main findings

Over the course of public consultations led by the FPT Seniors Forum on the Social and Economic Impacts of Ageism in Canada, conducted from August 15th to October 31st, 2022, participants placed health and health care as the most important domain in terms of addressing ageism. Other domains were as follows: social inclusion, safety and security, employment and workforce; with media and social media ranked last.

From the perspective of Canadians who took part in the public consultations, educational and intergenerational strategies, strategies related to digital technology, and age-friendly community initiatives are identified as significant to address ageism. This applies to all domains (namely health and health care; employment and workforce; social inclusion; safety and security; media and social media). Participants also underlined the importance of including the voice and the perspective of older adults in developing any strategy to address ageism, precisely to avoid stereotypical views. In other words, combating ageism should always rely on a "nothing about me without me" approachFootnote 1.

While many associations defending the rights of older adults and community groups in Canada have put in place numerous educational and intergenerational initiatives addressing ageism, information regarding the efficacy of such initiatives is lacking (that is the impact in decreasing ageist attitudes). As stated in section 4 of this report, one major recommendation is to ensure that any such initiatives include an effectiveness and efficiency evaluation component. In the current state, the employment and workforce domain is the only one whereby initiatives are more evidence-based with quantitative and/or qualitative data supporting their transformative capacity.

Scholarly literature main findings

International scholarly literature also suggests intergenerational or educational strategies to combat ageism, or a combination of both. As detailed in section 3 of this report, such strategies are sometimes targeting the general public, through media campaigns raising awareness about ageism for example, or are directed towards specific groups, such as health care professionals or employers.

Although many scholars have suggested intergenerational or educational (or a combination of both) initiatives over the last decade, recent studies underline the importance of building such initiatives by considering how factors such as gender and culture impact the expression and the experience of ageism.

Scholarly papers focus on the training of future health care professional (physicians, nurses, social workers, etc.) to address ageism. Training could include educational, intergenerational, or combined interventions. Given that the theme of health and health care is identified as the most important for Canadians that took part in the FPT Seniors Forum consultations, training of future health care professionals and affiliated professionals on age-based stereotypes and discrimination could be a mandatory and systematic component of their curriculum.

Policies and laws in the domain of employment and workforce are frequently suggested in the scholarly literature as options to address ageism, more precisely to address the behavioural component of ageism, namely discrimination.

Previous studies identify older women as being at a heightened risk of experiencing age discrimination as compared to older men. Such findings call for initiatives that take into account the cumulative effects of stigmatization (namely sexism and ageism).

Policy recommendations include: assessing the economic costs of ageism, providing evidence-based outcomes of strategies and initiatives addressing ageism, addressing gendered-ageism, tackling ageist stereotypes through education; including the age factor in Government of Canada Diversity and Inclusion initiativesFootnote 2 , and tailoring strategies to address ageism for different domains and audiences.

1. Introduction

1.1 The age of ageism where do we stand?

Ageism is a multifaceted concept that relies on a tripartite model comprised of cognitive, affective, and behavioural dimensions. In other words, ageism impacts how one thinks about aging (for example: through stereotypes), feels about aging and older adults (for example: prejudice), and acts or behaves toward aging and older adults (for example: discrimination).

Research has shown that ageism is a bidirectional process as young and older adults can be the target of it. However, over the last 3 decades, much more research has been conducted on ageism against older adults rather than against young adultsFootnote 3. It is a focus that can be partly explained by the ambivalent, if not negative relationship with aging and the aged that prevails in Western cultures. In this sense, ageism can be considered a unique form of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination in that every person can be targeted by it, as age-based social groups have permeable boundaries such that the young will eventually become old, if they live long enough. Examples of ageist stereotypes include thinking that most (if not all) older adults are unable to learn or change, that they lack mental sharpness, lose vigor and are vulnerableFootnote 4.

Howard Butler first coined the term ageism in 1969. Since then, much progress has been made to understand its sources, how it is conveyed, how it impacts individuals, organizations, and society in general and, most importantly, the ways through which it could be addressed or combatted.

In March 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched a global report calling for urgent action to ‘combat ageism and better measurement and reporting to expose ageism for what it is, an insidious scourge on societyFootnote 5. The report underlined the prevalence of ageism in multiple sectors of society, including the workplace. In Canada, for example, ageism has been specifically identified as one of the push factors leading older workers toward retirement and long-term joblessness.Footnote 6 The WHO report was timely, echoing decades of research that demonstrate that ageism remains a form of discrimination with ramifications and negative consequences.

There are few studies that have addressed the economic costs of ageism, however Levy and al., have done so in United StatesFootnote 7. Their study relied on the Stereotype Embodiment Theory (SET) which postulates that ageist stereotypes are internalized at a young age and with time, can become self-stereotypes. In turn, the activation (either consciously or unconsciously) of self-stereotypes leads to negative effects on health. For example, experimental studies have shown that older participants exposed to negative age stereotypes have lower memory performance in comparison to those who are notFootnote 8. In the study of Levy and al. (2020), 3 ageism predictors were used to assess their impact on health condition discrimination aimed at older persons, negative age stereotypes and negative self-perceptions of aging. They then sought to calculate the excess health care spending due to ageism (defined as the extent to which this spending is higher for those with high scores on the 3 predictors, compared to those with low scores)Footnote 9. Findings show that older Americans (aged 60 years old or more) exhibiting high levels of ageism resulted in a 1 year cost of $63 billion (US) in excess health care spending on 8 major health conditions (including cardiovascular disease and chronic respiratory disease). The health condition that showed the highest excess cost among the 3 predictors of ageism was cardiovascular disease.

Cognizant of the negative social and economic implications of ageism, governments, associations defending the rights of older adults, and researchers have recommended and/or put in place a string of initiatives aiming to combat ageism, or at least, to reduce its negative outcomes. Such initiatives are not only timely, but they also reveal that aged-based discrimination is now at a turning point: its sources, prevalence and outcomes have been solidly documented by decades of research and older adults' lived experiences. The time is now to focus on evidence-based initiatives and strategies to change the ways people think, act, and feel around aging. This report seeks to facilitate this by identifying and proposing promising strategies, approaches, and initiatives to address ageism targeting older adults in Canada. The report will also present best practices to counter ageism according to scholars. The 4 objectives are detailed under section 1.2.

1.2 Objectives

  1. Identify, through a cross-content analysis, previous or existing initiatives to fight ageism in Canada that address the related concerns and expectations of Canadians
  2. Analyze the characteristics of these initiatives
  3. Identify best practices, based on the results of Objectives 1 and 2, in addressing ageism of older adults elsewhere in the world
  4. Develop, building on the outcomes of Objectives 1, 2 and 3, a set of policy options and recommendations for the most promising initiatives to address ageism against older adults (in terms of impact and effectiveness) in the areas of health and health care, employment and workforce, social inclusion, safety and security, media and social media

1.3 Methodology

To meet these objectives, the first step consisted of conducting a cross-content analysis of 2 Federal, Provincial Territorial (FPT) Seniors Forum led reports: An Examination of the Social and Economic Impacts of Ageism and Consultations on the Social and Economic Impacts of Ageism in Canada: "What We Heard" Report. The first report draws on findings from a review of literature of academic and non-academic documents (produced by governments and organizations that represent and/or support older adults) on the social and economic impacts of ageism in the domains of health and health care, employment and workforce, social inclusion, safety and security, media and social media. A total of 258 documents, published between 2014 and 2019, in French or English, were analyzed. Data for the second report was collected between September and November 2022. The second report is a summary of what was heard during the consultations on ageism. A total of 8 FPT Seniors Forum led roundtable consultations, and 17 stakeholder-led consultations took place across Canada, providing participants with an opportunity to discuss ageism as it relates to the 5 domains of health and health care, employment and workforce, social inclusion, safety and security, media and social media. An ageism questionnaire was also available to respondents from August 15th to October 31st, 2022, and a total of 2,920 complete responses were received.

Both reports contain rich information documenting the experiences of older Canadians with ageism and initiatives they prioritize to address ageism. The cross-content analysis of these reports aimed at determining whether and to what extent there is alignment between what older Canadians are expressing in the face of ageism and the strategies and initiatives they anticipate in countering ageism in the domains of employment and workforce, health and health care, social inclusion, safety and security, media and social media.

Strategies and initiatives in each domain stemming from these reports are described in section 2.

In addition to the cross-content analysis of the 2 reports, the team conducted a literature review and analysis of 30 international scholarly papers (published over the last 5 years: 2019 to 2023)Footnote 10 focusing on strategies and initiatives to address ageism. The review aimed at examining the differences and similarities between strategies and initiatives undertaken to address ageism in Canada and those elsewhere in the world (namely United States, France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Scandinavian countries and Israel). Findings from the cross-content analysis of the 2 FPT Seniors Forum led reports and literature review of scholarly papers informed a series of policy options and recommendations for the most promising initiatives to address ageism.

2. Strategies and initiatives to address ageism in Canada from the perspectives of Canadians

This section identifies the main strategies and initiatives to address ageism in Canada stemming from the cross-content analysis of the 2 FPT reports, An Examination of the Social and Economic Impacts of Ageism and Consultations on the Social and Economic Impacts of Ageism in Canada: "What We Heard" Report. Initiatives are categorized according to different criteria stated in the methodology section (in other words, domains, employment and workforce; health and health care; social inclusion; safety and security; media and social media, importance and effectiveness).

Overview

Educational, intergenerational and digital technology strategies are identified in both reports as significant ones to address ageism in Canada and this stands true for all domains (namely employment and workforce; health and health care; social inclusion; safety and security; media and social media). Interestingly, educational and intergenerational strategies are also highly valued elsewhere in the world (section 3). Except for the work domain, law and policy options are seldom mentioned by Canadians who took part in the FPT Seniors Forum led consultations. Finally, one important message stemming from the FPT Seniors Forum reports is that any intervention and/or initiative meant to counter ageism, be it educational or intergenerational, must include the voice and the perspective of older adults, precisely to avoid stereotypical views of and about these same adults. In other words, combating ageism should always rely on a "nothing about me without me" approach.

Educational strategies

Awareness campaigns on ageism that promote positive representations of aging and older adults are described as effective tools to tackle negative stereotypes and ageists attitudes. Ideally, such campaigns would mobilize a wide range of partners, including associations defending the rights of older adults and non-profit and community-based organizations. More so, awareness campaigns could build on anti-ageist champions from different domains (for example, work, media, health, etc.) while avoiding the promotion of "perfect, extraordinary and exceptional" older adults that may implicitly convey an anti-aging message. Importantly, awareness campaigns must also be adapted in terms of domains and audiences; in other words, one unique and generic campaign on ageism runs the risk of missing out on different age groups of other adults as well as different needs and abilities and as such, undermine the complexities of ageism. Finally, any awareness campaign can not be conceptualized and developed without the collaboration of older adults.

Intergenerational strategies

In both FPT Seniors reports, social, recreational, and volunteering activities that allow younger and older generations to connect with one another and intergenerational housingFootnote 11 are frequently suggested initiatives to address ageism (although for the latter, few initiatives of intergenerational housing have been put in place in Canada). Importantly, intergenerational strategies must build on mutual benefits (or at the least, on the perception of mutual benefits) for both young and old and recognition of each generation's strengths. Intergenerational activities that are unidirectional where one generation is perceived as a provider and the other, as a passive recipient, could potentially aggravate age-based stereotypes and attitudes toward older adults.

Following are a few examples of intergenerational strategies :

It is important to note that ageism is not solely expressed by younger adults. There are more and more studies documenting what Gilleard and Higgs (2010) have conceptualized as "ageism of the fourth age". This form of ageism is often manifested within generations of older adults when some groups are judged as inferior and/or unequal on the basis of the way they are aging. In a study on intragenerational ageism, Lagacé and Firzly (2017) have shown that the oldest old are perceived in a negative and stereotypical way by the young old. However, studies on intragenerational ageism remain scarce and consequently, strategies to counter this phenomenon have not yet been developed.

Digital technology strategies

Strategies related to digital technology are crosscutting all 5 domains. For example, Canadians consulted consider that education around digital technology for older adults can increase awareness of fraud and scams (safety and security domain), foster social participation (social inclusion domain), and active involvement in media and social media (media and social media domain). However, societal assumptions that everyone has the ability and opportunity to participate digitally can contribute to the social exclusion of older adults as they tend to be more greatly impacted by the digital divide than younger generations. Digital technology training and programs can help to support the participation and inclusion of older adults in virtual opportunities. Additionally, public services could provide information in both digital and non-digital formats, when possible, to support inclusivity and accessibility.

Age-friendly initiatives

In addition, specific initiatives such as Age-Friendly Communities and Age-Friendly Cities are highlighted as ones that play an important role in decreasing ageist attitudes. Building around 8 key areas (outdoor spaces and buildings; transportation; housing; social participation; respect and social inclusion; civic participation and employment; communication and information; community support and health services), the WHO Age-friendly Communities initiative is meant to support older adults in remaining active and involved in their communities. Considering that social exclusion is one of the negative outcomes of ageism, it is no surprise that Canadians perceive age-friendly communities as an important means to decrease ageism and express strong support for such types of communities. In the same way, non-profit and community-based organizations whose programs foster social inclusion of older adults are also identified as essential to combat ageism. The reports underline that non-profit and community-based organizations deliver many of the social, educational, intergenerational and aging support programs that address ageism. However, according to Canadians consulted, community-based organizations could receive more funding considering their significant role in fostering positive views about aging and countering ageism.

2.1 Countering ageism in Canada according to different domains

When asked to prioritize domains where it is critical to address ageism, Canadians who participated in the ageism consultations, placed health and health care as the number one domain, followed by social inclusion, safety and security, employment and workforce, and media and social media is ranked last. It is interesting to note that the employment and workforce domain is a relatively low priority for participants while on the other hand, ageism in the workplace is identified as a critical obstacle in retaining older workers that, in turn, could partly address the labour shortage in Canada (as discussed in section 3). Such discrepancy could be partly explained by the fact that most Canadians who took part in the FPT Seniors Forum consultations were retired.

Health and health care

Canadians that took part in FPT Seniors Forum led consultations state that health and health care is the priority domain whereby ageism could be countered, particularly by investments in health and long-term care services for older adults. However, as detailed below, their recommended strategies to do so, are not directly addressing ageism except for those related to the training of professional caregivers.

For example, Canadians suggested providing more home and community-based support for aging in place through more and a wider range of home care services. And when aging at home is no longer possible, Canadians consulted recommended to develop innovative housing and care models as alternatives to retirement homes and long-term care facilities. An example of a European housing model was provided, including:

Canadians that took part in the consultations also suggested to modernize the health care system to better meet the needs of older adults. To do so, the following actions were proposed:

Following are 2 examples of such initiatives undertaken in Ontario and Quebec:

Social inclusion

Numerous scholarly studies have shown that ageist attitudes are a barrier to the social inclusion of older adults in society. Hence, it is no surprise that social inclusion is ranked by participants as the second highest priority to address ageism in Canada and that social isolation and loneliness were the most common social inclusion topics discussed during stakeholder consultations. Strategies to address the social isolation of older adults include:

Safety and security

Safety and security are ranked the third highest priority by participants. The 2 most discussed topics related to the safety and security of older adults are senior abuse, and scams and fraud whereby ageism is perceived as both a cause and a consequence. Strategies to ensure older adults' safety and security include:

Employment and workforce

As stated previously, the domain of employment and workforce is a rather low priority one as relates to countering ageism (it is ranked fourth out of 5). However, it remains the domain whereby Canadians surveyed provided the most detailed list of strategies addressing ageism. Interestingly, these strategies are consistent with those identified in a previous (2021) FPT Seniors Forum report on older workers and ageism entitled Older Workers: Exploring and Addressing the Stereotypes.

Strategies to counter ageism in the workplace focus on the hiring and the retention of older workers :

As an example, the initiative "La compétence n'a pas d'âge", funded by the Government of Quebec, was launched in 2015 and aims at increasing employers' awareness on the added value of experienced workers, through a series of media and web campaigns. It also includes a program aiming to provide tools and best practices to address ageism in the context of work (that is through hiring, participation and retention of experience workers). Currently, 535 companies are involved in the "La compétence n'a pas d'âge."

Media and social media

Media and social media are ranked the fifth priority domain by participants. How media and social media perpetuate ageism is the most discussed topic related to this domain.

Strategies to address ageism in media and social media included:

2.2 Target audience of strategies and initiatives to address ageism

Both scholarly papers identifying initiatives to counter ageism, and the consultations with Canadians on the social and economic impacts of ageism, identified possible target audiences for these initiatives. However, the groups of people identified are broad and it is not specified if such initiatives could be tailored to certain age groups or by domain (employment and workforce, health and health care, social inclusion, safety and security, and media and social media). Hence, the general population, young adults (including students), older adults, future professional healthcare providers, employers, human resource services and older workers are amongst the many groups mentioned by Canadians that could be the focus of these initiatives. As stated in the recommendations section of this report, it is important that policy options aimed at addressing ageism rely on a granular approach that takes into account the contextual and differential nature of ageism. For example, strategies targeting ageism in health and health care could be contextualized to health care providers and trainees while strategies targeting ageism in media and social media could include awareness campaigns to address age-based stereotypes in public discourse.

2.3 Evidence-based efficacy of strategies and initiatives to counter ageism

The 2 reportsFootnote 12 comprise multiple strategies and initiatives to address ageism undertaken by community organizations that provide programs and services to older adults or by scholars. However, most of these have not been empirically tested as to their efficacy at decreasing ageist attitudes and behaviour. To a certain extent, employment and workforce is the only domain whereby initiatives are more evidence-based with quantitative and/or qualitative data supporting their transformative capacity. In sum, there is a need to develop more methodological tools that allow to assess the efficacy of current and future initiatives in terms of reducing ageist attitudes and behaviours. This is one of the major recommendations of the current report (section 4).

3. The research perspective on strategies and initiatives to address ageism

This section identifies the types of strategies and interventions to address ageism as suggested by researchers elsewhere in the world. Precisely, a literature review was conducted on 30 scholarly papers published over the last 5 years in countries such as United States, France, Belgium, Germany, Israel, Italy, Switzerland and Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland). Main strategies and interventions are first described and then categorized according to the domains of employment and workforce, health and health care, social inclusion, safety and security, media and social media. (Annex 1 provides examples of such international strategies and interventions tackling ageism). Target audience and issues related to evidence-base of the suggested strategies are also discussed.

Overview

Interventions targeting ageism such as intergenerational initiatives or education about ageism, or a combination of both are often discussed in the scholarly literature. Such interventions seem to target either broadly the public through media campaigns raising awareness about ageism, for example, or are directed towards certain groups, such as students. Although intergenerational or educational (or a combination of both) initiatives to address ageism have been suggested by many scholars over the last decade, recent studies identify the conditions and context under which such initiatives can succeed (as detailed below). However, while these interventions are described in detail in the scholarly articles examined, few studies have tested their effectiveness on decreasing ageist attitudes (how one feels) and behaviours (how one acts).

In the domains of employment and workforce, and safety and security, the scholarly literature puts more emphasis on what can be done from a law perspective to address ageism. While age discrimination is being increasingly included in soft law (documents such as agreements, treaties or declarations, which are not legally binding but provide standards for behaviour and typically exist at an international level) and global guidance documents, more needs to be done to address subtle forms of ageism, such as patronizing and benevolent age-based stereotypes conveyed through language. In countries where there are policies and laws which directly address ageism, increasing sanctions for age discrimination has been suggested to lead to a decrease in age discrimination for hiring practices of older persons.

Finally, it is worth noting that some studies identify older women as being at a heightened risk of experiencing age discrimination than older men as a result of the intersection of both gender and age discrimination leading to greater social vulnerability (Sánchez-Izquierdo and al., 2022; Neumark, 2022). According to scholars, ageism cannot be viewed as a problem impacting a homogenous group of older persons so that initiatives which target gendered ageism, for example, are necessary to address this complex issue. Further research is needed to understand more diverse intersectional impacts of aging, such as those impacting people identifying as 2SLGBTQI+. Finally, examining variation in how ageism is experienced in different countries and cultures may help us to understand more about ageism and how/why it persists in society.

Educational interventions

According to scholarly studies, educational interventions, whether at school, university, or in the continuing education of professionals, there is a need to build on a more realistic representation of aging and older adults through deconstructing stereotypes and prejudices (Apriceno & Levy, 2023; Bétrisey and al., 2023; Burnes and al., 2019). As stereotypical beliefs often pave the way for discriminatory behaviour, educational interventions could focus on countering the roots of ageism, namely negative age-based stereotypes (such as framing narratives around older adults mainly around their limitations). Educational interventions could also build around the notion of heterogeneity of the older adult population (in other words diversity of aging paths) while underlining the similarities between generations instead of the differences. Finally, scholars argue that educational interventions could aim at the development of skills to interact with older adults, based on respect and empathy.

For example, authors of recent systematic reviews on best interventions to reduce ageism suggest that among the most promising educational initiatives are simulations and role-playing as these can lead undergraduate (health and social sciences) students to develop empathy toward older adults by putting themselves in their shoes. Lectures on aging, health promotion and interpersonal respect, and discussions on what it means to be an older adult are also mentioned as efficient educational interventions to reduce ageism (Apriceno and Levy, 2023; Martinez-Arnau and al., 2022; and Bétrisey and al., 2024).

Intergenerational interventions

Many scholarly studies discuss how and the extent to which intergenerational strategies can counter ageism. Interestingly, these studies also outline the necessary conditions and context needed to generate positive outcomes. Precisely, intergenerational initiatives could be based on reciprocity whereby both parties (young and old) acknowledge each other's strengths. Researchers warn against the counter-productive outcomes of intergenerational interventions that position older adults mainly as care or support receivers and young adults as care or support providers, as stated by Bétrisey and al. (2024): "As supported by Chonody (2015), interacting with older adults with disabilities may lead to a reinforcement of stereotypes and prejudices (Holroyd and al., 2009; MacKnight and Powell, 2001), while healthy older adults may be considered as exceptions, not leading to the desired effects."

To this effect, researchers emphasize the importance of the 4 essential conditions for intergenerational outcomes to positively impact attitudes about aging and older adults. These conditions stem from Allport's Contact Hypothesis (Allport, 1954; Pettigrew and Tropp, 2006), and are as follows:

Findings from studies also suggest that in-person and one-on-one intergenerational contact are more effective in positively changing attitudes about aging and older adults than are group and online contact (Apriceno and Levy, 2023). Finally, intergenerational programming in combination with education is identified by scholars as the most effective route to reduce ageism among youths and adults. For example, in a systematic review and meta-analysis comprised of 63 studies, Burnes and al. (2019) found that the combination of educational and intergenerational interventions significantly improved attitudes toward aging, knowledge about aging and comfort with older adults. Interestingly, however, these 3 types of interventions did not have a significant effect on self-anxiety about aging (which has been linked with a tendency to keep physical and psychological distance from older adults).

3.1 Research perspective on countering ageism according to different domains

Health and health care

Researchers have underlined the lack of interest in working with older adults on the part of nurses, social workers and physicians in comparison to children, young adults and adults. More so, educating health care students about older adults and increasing their professional interest toward geriatrics remains a challenge (Bailey and Sudha, 2022). Such lack of interest could be amongst the factors that explain why older adults are less likely to receive adequate screening tests and preventive care, more often excluded from clinical trials, and treatment options are withheld, all of which increase their risk of negative health outcomes (Burnes and al., 2019).

Scholarly papers focus on the training of future health care professional (physicians, nurses, social workers, etc.) to address ageism. Training could include educational, intergenerational, or combined interventions. Given that the theme of health and health care is identified as the most important for Canadians that took part in the FPT Seniors Forum consultations, training of future health care professionals on age-based stereotypes and discrimination could be a mandatory and systematic component of their curriculum. More so, findings from empirical studies suggest that levels of ageist attitudes are highest amongst health sciences students and health care professionals and that training is effective in addressing such attitudes toward older adults (Bétrisey and al., 2024).

Employment and workforce

In Canada, any person that is employed or receives services from a business or organization that is regulated by the federal government and experiences discrimination, including age-based discrimination, can file a formal complaint with the Canadian Human Rights Commission (CHRC)Footnote 13 . The CHRC was established under the Canadian Human Rights Act and has the authority to research, raise awareness, and speak out on any matter related human rights in Canada. The Commission is also responsible for administering the law which protects people in Canada from discrimination based on any of the enumerated grounds such as: race, sex, disability, and age. Additionally, the CHRC is empowered under the federal Employment Equity Act.Footnote 14

In addition to the federal Canadian Human Rights Act, which prohibits discrimination based on age, each province and territory has its own human rights statute that also prohibits age-based discrimination. These statutes, that vary across Canada, ensure that individuals are not discriminated against in areas such as employment. For example, in provinces such as Alberta, Manitoba and Nova Scotia, complaints are dealt with by a Human Rights Commission that decides, after investigation, if these complaints are transferred to an adjudicative process. On the other hand, in provinces such as Ontario and British Columbia, complaints are received directly by an administrative tribunal that will adjudicate such complaints.

Considering that age discrimination is often not taken seriously in comparison with other forms of discrimination, scholars call for a reinforcement of policies and laws especially in the domain of employment and workforce. For example, the work conducted by economist David Neumark and colleagues address policies and laws (in a US context) to reduce ageism specifically in relation to hiring practices of older workers, whereby older women are particularly at a disadvantage compared to older men. In 2 experimental studies, Newmark and al., show evidence that age discrimination laws helps to improve labour market outcomes for older workers and protect them from age discrimination: "In particular, we find some evidence of less discrimination against both older men and older women in states where the law allows larger damages in age discrimination claims, and we find some evidence of less discrimination against older women in states where the law allows larger damages in disability discrimination claims." (Neumark and al., 2019, p. 398).

However, studies also underline the importance of training and awareness campaigns in the workplace to tackle the roots of ageism, namely negative stereotypes targeting older workers. Precisely, scholars focus on the training of employers and human resources officers about ageism that can potentially impact an employee at every aspect of the individual career (from recruitment to retirement). For example, in a systematic review on ageism in the workplace, in all studies reviewed, evidence of ageism was observed across various aspects. This ranged from the hiring process and employability to the rigorous evaluation of older workers' performance and eventual retirement. These findings underscore the fact that ageism affects individuals throughout their entire working lives (Cebola and al., 2021)Footnote 15 .

Intergenerational workplace initiatives, such as age and generational diversified work teams and bidirectional mentoring are also suggested as efficient means to counter ageism in the workplace (provided such initiatives build on the 4 conditions of group contact; refer to paragraph under Intergenerational Interventions in this section). However, there is a need to invest in design, implementation, and evaluation of such interventions. Finally, considering that high level managers and employers play a substantial role in shaping workplace culture, scholars find it imperative to examine the narratives and the language that managers and employers use to talk about older workers and/or an aging workforce. To this point, scholars call for an equity, diversity and inclusion (EDI) workplace framework that includes age, and precisely older workers.

Safety and security

Studies examined for the current report reflect on the safety and security domain through a human rights lens and mainly from the angle of discrimination based on age (less so on the other components of ageism, namely stereotypes and attitudes). To this effect, scholars maintain that old age discrimination is more often included in international instruments or declarations (soft law), rather than hard law documents (documents detailing obligations which can be legally enforced) noting that the latter falls behind as core human rights treaties were created many years ago. However, be it in soft or hard laws, researchers call for legal actions against ageism that consider all 3 aspects of it: cognitive (stereotypes); affective (prejudice) and behavioural (discrimination); and suggest such 3 components could be introduced into a potential future convention on the rights of older persons. Finally, on the safety and security domain, scholars suggest building on a "mainstreaming aging approach" (a "process and multidimensional effort to integrate aging issues into all policy fields and policy levels", Mikołajczyk, 2023, page 442). This involves including relevant stakeholders in decision-making processes with the goal of achieving a more equitable approach to benefit all social and age groups (Mikołajczyk, 2023).

Media and social media

Papers examined for the current report focus on media and social media campaigns targeting ageism and their impact on young and older adults, and employers' attitudes toward aging. For example, Okun and al. (2022) examined 3 social media campaigns conducted in Israel during the Covid-19 pandemic through qualitative analysis of both informational sources related to the campaigns and interviews with organizers of the campaigns. They found that such campaigns generated positive impressions from both older adults and the public in general, and "an increase in the willingness of employers and small business to hire people over the age 60" (Okun and al., 2022, page 17). Findings also suggest that older adults that participated in the production of the campaigns expressed strong feelings of satisfaction. However, results of the campaigns were not quantitatively measured.Footnote 16

3.2 Target audience of strategies and initiatives to address ageism

As is the case for Canadians who participated in the FPT Seniors Forum consultations, scholars identify different audiences that strategies and initiatives could be directed towards to address ageism. Hence, the population in general, young adults (including students, especially students in the field of health and health care), older adults, professional health care givers, employers and human resource officers and older workers are examples of audiences on which strategies and initiatives have been developed while often not tested.

3.3 Evidence-based and efficacy of strategies and initiatives to counter ageism

Educational, intergenerational, and combined interventions were tested on rather small samples of specific populations, such as high school and university students. Findings of studies examined for this report suggest that combined interventions undertaken in a school context are the most effective in deconstructing ageist stereotypes and changing young adult's attitudes (especially young women) toward older adults. For example, in a study conducted by Nitschke and al. (2022), students in dental school in Switzerland received education related to older adulthood coupled with intergenerational contact with older adults during their studies. The authors looked at the attitudes of these students and found they held positive perceptions of aging over many years. They attributed the positive perceptions to the combination of education and intergenerational contact with older adults. However, as noted previously, training of future health care professionals - through educational and intergenerational interventions - while improving attitudes toward older adults, has no effect on anxiety toward one's own aging. On the other hand, there are few (if any) evidence-based results on the efficacy of information and awareness campaigns on ageism. The same can be said (however to a lesser extent) on policies and laws. A small number of studies consulted for this report, provided information on their efficacy in addressing ageism and were typically described in relation to the domains of employment and workforce and safety and security.

4. Policy recommendations: promising strategies, approaches, and initiatives to address ageism

The following policy recommendations are based on the findings from sections 2 and 3, namely a cross-content analysis of 2 reports on ageism in Canada and a literature review of 30 international scholarly papers focusing on options to address ageism.

Assess the economic costs of ageism

Ageism toward older adults is widespread and remains one of the most tolerated forms of prejudice. Yet, no evidence-based study has been conducted in Canada to assess the economic costs of ageist stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination targeting older adults, in different domains, such as health and health care, or employment and workforce (while this has been done in the US and France amongst others). Plausibly, the argument as per the economic costs may prove to be convincing and facilitate the adoption of strategies and policy options to address ageism. Hence, the first recommendation stemming from this report is to fund and conduct a pan-Canadian study on the economic costs of ageism, especially in the domains of employment and workforce as well as health and healthcare.

Include evidence-based outcomes in strategies and initiatives to address ageism

As stated in this report, while many local, provincial, territorial, and federal initiatives and programs to counter ageism are and have been put in place in Canada and abroad over the last 2 decades, very few of those are tested in terms of evidence-based impact (reducing levels of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination). Hence, any future initiative to address ageism could mandatorily include an evidence-based methodology that allows for key performance indicators (KPIs) or performance measures to support programming. This would facilitate prioritization of strategies (and types of strategies) to address ageism in different domains such as health and healthcare and employment and workforce.

Create a repertoire of tools and resources to address ageism

Following on from the previous point, the creation of a pan-Canadian directory is recommended. This directory could contain the tools and resources (podcasts, workshops, databases, good practice guides, etc.) to address ageism, similar to the UN Decade of Healthy Aging platform (Decade of Healthy Ageing). Such directory could be available to older adults and frontline service providers. Currently, and as stated previously in this report, many resources and tools to counter ageism have been developed at the federal, provincial and territorial level; however, these need to be collected and listed into one accessible and age friendly repository.

Address gendered ageism

More and more studies identify older women as being at a heightened risk of experiencing age discrimination as compared to older men, especially in the workplace and in the context of care - especially long-term care as women, typically living longer than men, need more long-term care. As such, specific and multilevel strategies (policies, laws, educational and intergenerational programs) could aim to recognize, address, and reduce gendered ageism. In order to inform such strategies, it is important to ensure consistent and systematic data collection on sex and age. Such data could actually be included as part of international data standards and be required for federal, provincial and territorial funding application. Further research is needed to understand more diverse gendered impacts of aging, such as those impacting people identifying as 2SLGBTQI+.

Tackle ageist stereotypes through education

As suggested in the scholarly literature and as expressed by Canadians who took part in the FPT Seniors Forum consultations, learning and critically thinking about ageist stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination could be part of school curricula, from primary to high school and university. It is well documented that stereotype formation about aging starts at an early age and carries on into adult life. In turn, stereotypes can turn into discriminatory behaviour and/or be internalized (as reflected in self-ageist attitudes). Hence, it is important that ageism be tackled at its roots through education of young children, teenagers and young adults. This could mean incorporating ageism awareness courses as well as intergenerational projects within schools and universities curriculums.

Include age in the equity, diversity and inclusion efforts

Age is not yet part of the equity, diversity and inclusion conversation, nor practice. For example, while the Canadian workforce reflects a certain level of progress regarding ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation, the same cannot be said for age. Older workers still face obstacles stemming from stereotypical views and ageist discrimination. Hence, fostering an inclusive workplace, with accessibility considerations, that welcomes older workers can undoubtedly contribute to decreasing ageism.

Tailor strategies to address ageism for different domains and audiences

As underlined in the scholarly literature, ageism is a multifaceted process that is expressed in different ways, depending on context and domain and individuals (or groups of individuals) who are the target of it. The same can be argued for the outcomes of ageism. Currently, however, most strategies and initiatives addressing ageism do not utilize a differential approach to audiences decreasing the efficacy of the intervention. As detailed in the following, certain strategies and initiatives are best fit for a specific domain or group of individuals while others could address ageism in a different domain, or for a different audience.

Health and health care

The most pressing issue related to ageism in health and health care is, as identified in the scholarly literature and as expected (and experienced) by Canadian older adults, addressing stereotypical views and prejudice that future and current health care professionals may have about older patients, such as vulnerability, dependency and incompetency. Hence, education of the future health care professionals about ageism could be fully integrated in their curricula. As suggested by scholars, education and training about ageism could also improve future health care professionals' interest in working with older adults as well as in the fields of geriatrics. In addition, awareness campaigns on ageism addressed at current professional caregivers are also strongly suggested as means of improving interaction and communication with caregivers.

Employment and workforce

This domain is one where combined educational and intergenerational approaches, and policies addressing ageism are most promising, according to researchers and Canadians consulted during the FPT Seniors Forum consultations.

Employers and high-level managers (including human resources managers) could be at the first line of training awareness campaigns about implicit and explicit age-based stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination that can affect hiring and professional development and retirement practices. They could also be made aware of the economic costs of ageism in the workplace (provided studies are conducted to this effect). Employers and high-level managers could be accountable for hiring, participation and retention practices within the workplace as relates to age, and precisely older adults.

Employers could also foster an intergenerational work climate and facilitate age-based diversified teams (building around Allport's 4 conditions). However, as mentioned previously in this report, intergenerational initiatives could be evaluated for their efficacy in changing ageist stereotypes, attitudes, and discrimination. Employers and high-level managers could also adopt an age-based inclusive workplace language (in their official communications). They set the tone in terms of workplace climate and must convey a positive image of older workers through language and communication. Workplace Diversity and Inclusion efforts could include age and as such, facilitate a conversation about ageism targeting older workers.

Social inclusion

Social inclusion is a cross-cutting domain whereby ageism could be addressed as it relates to how and the extent to which older adults feel they are integrated into society. Consultations with Canadians identify 2 important routes to foster social inclusion, technology and age-friendly cities and communities. Ensuring access to technology and providing training support to facilitate older adults' usage of technology (and sense of self-competency to do so) can undoubtedly contribute to heightened feeling of social inclusion/participation. The WHO Age-friendly Cities and Communities project is another means, according to Canadians, to foster social inclusion, and to counter ageism.

Safety and security

In the safety and security domain, scholars suggest a mainstreaming aging approach, one that relies on multidimensional efforts to integrate aging issues into all policy fields and policy levels. This involves including relevant stakeholders in decision-making processes with a goal to achieve more equitable approach to benefit all social and age groups. From a legal perspective, much needs to be done to eradicate ageism, as noted in the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Report on Ageism (2021): "in international law, there is no specific legal instrument to dispel prejudice and discrimination against older people and most international human rights instruments do not explicitly list age as a prohibited ground for discrimination" (page 104). Hence, in line with the work undertaken by the UN Open-Ended Working Group on Aging, to "consider the existing international framework of the human rights of older persons and identify possible gaps and how best to address them, including by considering, as appropriate, the feasibility of further instruments and measures", the WHO report suggests that international policy and legislative guarantees against age discrimination could be increased and also refers to an international convention as an element that could result in strengthened national legislation and policies. In addition to continuing discussions regarding the potential creation of an international legal instrument to further advance safety and security in the long term, shorter-term results could be achieved through safety and security initiatives focusing on raising public awareness and providing education about mistreatment of older persons through multi-mode campaigns. More so, considering that mistreatment often stems from close relatives or family members, it is important to consider how to ensure that easy and accessible tools to report mistreatment of older persons, and effective interventions to end the abuse, are in place. Finally, there is a need to consider making training on mistreatment of older persons, and on scams and fraud mandatory for police, health care providers, bankers, and frontline services providers.

Media and social media

Media and social media are powerful channels of stereotypes, and it is well documented that older adults are under-represented and/or negatively represented in media and social media. Hence, awareness campaigns could be mobilized to address age-based stereotypes. However, such campaigns need to consider the composition of audiences. Older adults are not a homogeneous group, and manifestations of ageism differ according to sub-groups of older adults. For example, stereotypes targeting the very old relate to vulnerability and absence of agency while the baby boomer generation is depicted as selfish and depriving younger generations from resources and opportunities. The importance of involving older adults in the production of media products and narratives cannot be overstated.

5. Conclusion

The purpose of this report was to identify strategies to counter ageism, based on the analysis of 2 Federal, Provincial and Territorial (FPT) Seniors Forum led reports, and a review of recent international scholarly literature. Among the important findings that emerges from the analysis is the need to evaluate the many initiatives and programs conducted in Canada as they relate to ageism. Indeed, while there are many such initiatives to address ageism, very few have been evaluated as for their efficacy in changing negative attitudes toward aging. Equally important is the need to estimate the cost of ageism to the economy. No pan-Canadian study has been conducted to this effect. Moreover, it is important to remember that ageism targeting older adults largely stems from a negative societal conception of aging. In other words, tackling ageism means changing beliefs and attitudes around aging. Obviously, this is not an easy task and there is no one-size-fits-all solution. However, based on the analysis conducted, possible solutions converge at the following levels: educational, intergenerational (and/or a combination of both), and legal. The first relies on awareness campaigns that foster a positive (but realistic) image of aging and most importantly on the contributions of older adults to society, notwithstanding their health and socio-economic status. Educational strategies could also focus on mandatory training of current and future health care professionals as well as employers on age-based stereotypes and discrimination. Intergenerational strategies, fostering connections between younger and older adults, is another important route to tackle ageism. Social, recreational, volunteering and learning activities that allow generations to connect with one another is an area for future exploration, including intergenerational housing. Finally, after decades of research on ageism demonstrating its detrimental impact on older adults (and on society in general), it is important to consider potential protection gaps in international legislative instruments that aim to protect older persons from discrimination, including older workers, and to consider how to best address them. With these suggestions, the issue of ageism can be addressed and the impacts minimized.

Annex 1: Examples from the international literature to address ageism

Education

Slijivic and al. (2022), explored if empathy in younger people was evoked through the digital storytelling of older adults in Australia. A ‘listening lounge' was set-up at a university where students were able to listen and watch multimedia pre-recorded narratives of older adults. The authors found that participants experienced positive changes in attitudes towards older adults regardless of their attitude prior to viewing the digital story.

Intergenerational contact

Tybjerg-Jeppesen and al. (2023) conducted a survey in Denmark to understand the association between workplace climate and self-perceived aging, work engagement, and turnover intention. A more positive intergenerational workplace climate was related to better self-perceived aging, more work engagement, and less turnover intention. Initiatives that aim to strengthen intergenerational climate in the workplace may have benefits for all age groups. However, there is a need to invest in design, implementation, and evaluation of these interventions.

In Sweden, Kleijberg, Ahlberg, Hilton, and Tishelman (2020) observed that reciprocal interactions between 9-year-old youths and older adults (80+) involving arts activities ( for example: collage, sculpture, games) related to end-of-life in after-school centres and artistic organizations were efficient in decreasing stereotypes and prejudices. Youth were able to see older adults as individuals with their own experiences of life, regardless of the age group to which they belonged. The authors also observed that maintaining these new intergenerational contacts and activities could be difficult if there is no community support.

In Italy, Santini, Tombolesi, Baschiera, and Lamura (2018) used "Let's Re-Generate", a 32-week intervention with various activities in small groups ( for example: learning sessions based on manual arts, biographical self-narration, playing games, acting, music and choral, etc.), allowing adolescents to interact with both active and more frail older adults. By fostering awareness of older adults' heterogeneity, this intervention resulted in a decrease in stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination shown by youths.

Combination of education and intergenerational contact

In a study conducted by Nitschke and al (2022), students in dental school in Switzerland received education related to older adulthood coupled with intergenerational contact with older adults during their studies. The authors looked at the attitudes of these students and found they held positive perceptions of aging over many years, they attributed this to the combination of education and intergenerational contact with older adults.

Annex 2: ReferencesFootnote 17

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In addition to this list of 30 international papers, we also looked at the WHO Decade platform (Decade of Healthy Aging) for international initiatives related to ageism.

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2025-10-09