Page 2: Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Total Coliforms

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Part I. Overview and Application

1.0 Guideline

The maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) of total coliforms in water leaving a treatment plant and in non-disinfected groundwater leaving the well is none detectable per 100 mL.

Total coliforms should be monitored in the distribution system because they are used to indicate changes in water quality. Detection of total coliforms from consecutive samples from the same site or from more than 10% of the samples collected in a given sampling period should be investigated.

2.0 Executive summary

Total coliforms are a group of bacteria that are naturally found on plants and in soils, water, and in the intestines of humans and warm-blooded animals. Because total coliforms are widespread in the environment, they can be used as one of the many operational tools to determine the efficacy of a drinking water treatment system.

Health Canada recently completed its review on the usefulness of total coliforms as part of a multi-barrier approach to producing microbiologically acceptable drinking water. This guideline technical document reviews and assesses available literature on the uses of total coliforms in drinking water quality management, including as indicators of groundwater vulnerability, the adequacy of disinfection, and changes in distribution system water quality. From this review, the guideline for total coliforms in water leaving a treatment plant and in non-disinfected groundwater leaving the well is established as a maximum acceptable concentration of none detectable in 100 mL of water. This MAC does not apply to distribution systems, where total coliforms are used to indicate changes in water quality.

2.1 Significance of total coliforms in drinking water systems

Monitoring for total coliforms should be used, in conjunction with other indicators, as part of a multi-barrier approach to producing drinking water of an acceptable quality. The number, frequency, and location of samples for total coliform testing will vary according to the type and size of the system and jurisdictional requirements.

Total coliforms are naturally found in both faecal and non-faecal environments, so they are commonly present in both surface water and groundwater under the direct influence of surface water (GUDI) sources. Consequently, monitoring total coliforms in these sources does not provide information on the quality of the source water from the perspective of health risk. Protected groundwater systems, on the other hand, should not contain total coliforms. As their presence indicates that the groundwater may be vulnerable to contamination from the surrounding environment, detection of total coliforms in the water leaving the well should trigger further actions.

Monitoring for total coliforms at the treatment plant and in the distribution and storage system is carried out to provide information on the adequacy of drinking water treatment and on the microbial condition of the distribution system. The presence of total coliforms in water leaving any treatment plant signifies that inadequate treatment has taken place and therefore additional actions need to be taken. These should include actions such as notifying the responsible authorities, investigating the cause of the contamination, and implementing corrective actions; which could include issuing a boil water advisory.

The presence of total coliforms in the distribution and storage system, when water tested immediately post-treatment is free of total coliforms, indicates water quality degradation, possibly via bacterial regrowth or post-treatment contamination. In municipal-scale systems, the detection of more than 10% of samples in a given sampling period, or of consecutive samples from the same site, that are positive for total coliforms indicates changes in the quality of the water and a need for follow-up actions to be initiated. In residential-scale systems where there is little or no distribution system, the presence of any total coliforms should trigger follow-up actions to investigate the cause of the positive results.

2.2 Sampling for total coliforms

As a minimum, water leaving a municipal scale treatment plant should be sampled and tested at least weekly for total coliforms as part of the verification process in a source-to-tap multi-barrier approach. In many systems, the water leaving the treatment plant will be tested well in excess of the minimum requirements. In a distribution system, the number of samples for this bacteriological testing should be increased in accordance with the size of the population served, and the samples should be taken at regular intervals throughout the month.

Sampling frequencies in residential-scale and small private systems may vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction but should include times when the risk of contamination is greatest, for example, after spring thaw, heavy rains, or dry periods. New or rehabilitated wells should also be sampled initially to confirm acceptable bacteriological quality.

Proper procedures for collecting samples must be observed to ensure that the samples are representative of the water being examined. A minimum volume of 100 mL of water should be collected for testing, and testing should be started as soon as possible after collection.

2.3 Treatment technology

Generally, minimum treatment of supplies derived from surface water or GUDI sources should include filtration (or technologies providing an equivalent log reduction credit) and disinfection. Protected groundwaters should receive adequate treatment for the removal/inactivation of enteric viruses, unless exempted by the responsible authority based on site-specific considerations, such as historical and on-going monitoring data. In systems with a distribution system, a disinfectant residual should be maintained at all times.

3.0 Application of the guideline

Note: Specific guidance related to the implementation of drinking water guidelines should be obtained from the appropriate drinking water authority in the affected jurisdiction.

Monitoring for total coliforms should be used, in conjunction with other indicators, as part of a multi-barrier approach to producing drinking water of an acceptable quality. The number, frequency, and location of samples for total coliform testing will vary according to the type and size of the system and jurisdictional requirements. For decision-making, the focus is the positive detection of total coliforms, regardless of quantity. However, although quantitative results are not precise, they can be used to provide an indication of the magnitude of a problem and thus inform the public health response.

3.1 Municipal scale drinking water supply systems

3.1.1 Monitoring total coliforms in water leaving the treatment plant

Total coliforms should be monitored at least weekly in water leaving a treatment plant. If total coliforms are detected, this indicates a serious breach in treatment and is therefore unacceptable. These tests should be used in conjunction with other indicators, such as residual disinfectant and turbidity monitoring as part of a multi-barrier approach to producing drinking water of acceptable quality. While the required frequency for all testing at the treatment plant is prescribed by the responsible authority, best practice commonly involves a testing frequency beyond these minimum recommendations based upon the size of system, the number of consumers served, the history of the system, and other site-specific considerations.

3.1.2 Monitoring total coliforms within water distribution and storage systems

In municipal scale distribution and storage systems, the number of samples collected for total coliform testing should reflect the size of the population being served, with a minimum of four samples per month. The sampling points and testing frequencies for total coliforms, residual disinfectant, and turbidity in treated water within distribution and storage systems will be prescribed by the responsible authority. As an important part of a multi-barrier approach to ensuring safe drinking water, incorporating total coliforms into a distribution and storage system monitoring strategy can, over time, provide an enhanced knowledge of water quality throughout the system as well as overall system condition. The approach should take into account the particular characteristics of the distribution and storage system and historic knowledge of the overall system such as age, layout, or materials. This strategy allows for the detection of changing conditions, intrusion of contaminants, or areas of declining water quality, which can then be investigated further.

3.1.3 Notification

The presence of any total coliform bacteria in water leaving a treatment plant indicates a serious breach in treatment and is therefore unacceptable. This situation should be corrected immediately. The system owner should notify all responsible authorities and immediately reanalyze the coliform-positive sample(s) for Escherichia coli and resample and test the positive site(s) to confirm the presence or absence of both E. coli and total coliforms (see Appendix A). Guidance on analytical methods for E. coli and the actions that are required if the presence of E. coli is confirmed are outlined in sections 5.0 and 3.0, respectively, of the guideline technical document for E. coli.

In a distribution system, coliform bacteria are operational indicators. Their presence indicates water quality degradation, possibly via bacterial regrowth or post-treatment contamination. Detection of total coliforms (in the absence of E. coli) in more than 10% of samples in a given sampling period, or from consecutive samples from the same site, should be investigated and appropriate corrective actions taken. Some or all of the corrective actions listed in the following section may be necessary.

3.1.4 Corrective actions

The degree of response to the presence of total coliforms (in the absence of E. coli) should be discussed with the appropriate agencies and will depend on

• a risk-based assessment of the significance and extent of the problem, taking the history of the entire system into account
• the history and variability of the quality of the raw water supply
• the documented historical effectiveness of the treatment process
• the integrity of the distribution system, including the existence and effectiveness of a cross-connection control program.

Knowledge of the history of the system, including the past frequency and locations of total coliform-positive samples, enables qualified personnel to consider appropriate actions when total coliforms are detected in the absence of E. coli.

If corrective actions are deemed necessary, the owner of the waterworks system, in consultation with the responsible authorities, should carry out appropriate corrective actions, which could include the following measures:

• Verify the integrity and the optimal operation of the treatment process.
• Verify the integrity of the distribution system.
• Verify that the required disinfectant residual is present throughout the distribution system.
• Increase the disinfectant dosage, flush the water mains, clean treated-water storage tanks (municipal reservoirs and domestic cisterns), and check for the presence of cross-connections and pressure losses. Water should be dechlorinated before being discharged into fish-bearing waters. The responsible authority should be consulted regarding the methods available, as well as the correct procedure, for carrying out dechlorination.
• Sample and test sites adjacent to the site(s) of the positive sample(s). Tests performed should include total coliforms, E. coli, disinfectant residual, and turbidity. At a minimum, one sample upstream and one downstream from the original sample site(s) plus the finished water from the treatment plant as it enters the distribution system should be tested. Other samples should be collected and tested following a sampling plan appropriate for the distribution system.
• Conduct an investigation to identify the problem and prevent its recurrence, including a measure of raw water quality (e.g., bacteriology, colour, assimilable organic carbon [AOC], turbidity, conductivity) and variability.
• Continue selected sampling and testing (e.g., bacteriology, disinfectant residual, turbidity) of all identified sites during the investigative phase to confirm the extent of the problem and to verify the success of the corrective actions.

If enhanced health surveillance indicates that a waterborne outbreak may be occurring or if conditions exist that could result in a waterborne outbreak, then the necessity of issuing a boil water advisory^{Footnote 1} should be discussed immediately with senior operations personnel at the water utility and with the responsible authority. In the event that an incident that may have contaminated the distribution system or interfered with treatment is known to the owner, consumers should be notified immediately to boil the drinking water. A boil water advisory should be rescinded only after a minimum of two consecutive sets of samples, collected 24 hours apart, show negative results that demonstrate full system-wide integrity (including acceptable bacteriological quality, disinfection residuals, and/or turbidity). Additional negative results may be required by the local responsible authority. Further information on boil water advisories can be found in Guidance for Issuing and Rescinding Boil Water Advisories.

Minimum treatment of supplies derived from surface water sources or groundwater under the direct influence of surface waters should include adequate filtration (or technologies providing an equivalent log removal/inactivation) and disinfection. For protected groundwater sources (i.e., those not under the direct influence of surface waters), adequate treatment is recommended to ensure the removal /inactivation of enteric viruses (as outlined in the guideline technical document on enteric viruses), unless exempted by the responsible authority based on site-specific considerations including historical and on-going monitoring data. In all systems with a distribution system, a disinfectant residual should be maintained at all times. The appropriate type and level of treatment should take into account the potential fluctuations in water quality, including short-term water quality degradation, and variability in treatment performance.

3.2 Residential scale

3.2.1 Testing requirements

Sampling frequencies for residential-scale^{Footnote 2}  systems will be determined by the authority having jurisdiction for the system and should include times when the risk of contamination is greatest, for example, early spring after the thaw, after an extended dry spell, or following heavy rains. Owners of private supplies should be encouraged to have their water tested for total coliforms during these same periods. New or rehabilitated wells should also be tested before use to confirm the microbiological quality.

3.2.2 Notification

No samples from residential scale water supplies should contain coliforms. If a sample contains total coliform bacteria, it should be immediately reanalyzed and the positive site resampled and tested to confirm the presence or absence of both E. coli and total coliforms. If resampling confirms that the system is contaminated with E. coli, the actions required are outlined in the guideline technical document on E. coli.

Responses to total coliform-positive samples in the absence of E. coli can vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. As a precautionary measure, some jurisdictions will always advise the owner to boil the drinking water or use an alternative safe source as an interim measure until corrective actions are taken. In other jurisdictions, advice on interim measures is site-specific and depends on such factors as the historical water quality data, the health status of the users, and delays in investigation. Regardless of whether a boil water advisory is issued, the source of the coliforms needs to be investigated, and appropriate actions need to be taken (see Appendix B). These may include some or all of the corrective actions outlined in the following sections.

3.2.3 Corrective actions for disinfected supplies

The first step is to conduct a sanitary survey to verify the physical condition of the drinking water system as applicable, including water intake, well, well head, pump, treatment system (including chemical feed equipment, if present), plumbing, and surrounding area. Any identified faults should be corrected before proceeding. If all the physical conditions are acceptable, some or all of the following corrective actions may be necessary:

• In a chlorinated system, verify that a disinfectant residual is present throughout the system. Increase the disinfectant dosage, flush the system thoroughly, and clean treated-water storage tanks and domestic cisterns. Water should be dechlorinated before being discharged to fish-bearing waters. The responsible authority should be consulted regarding the methods available, as well as the correct procedure, for carrying out dechlorination.
• For systems where the disinfection technology does not leave a disinfectant residual, such as UV or ozone, it may be necessary to shock chlorinate the well and plumbing system; further information on shock chlorination is available in the Water Quality.
• Ensure that the disinfection system is working properly and maintained according to manufacturer's instructions.

After the necessary corrective actions have been taken, samples should be collected and tested for both total coliforms and E. coli to confirm that the problem has been corrected. If total coliforms are detected after implementing these corrective actions, a boil water advisory should be issued, if one is not already in place. Alternatively, a source of water known to be safe should be used until the situation is corrected. The presence of total coliforms after corrective actions suggests that the system remains vulnerable to contamination. If the problem cannot be corrected, additional treatment or a new source of drinking water may need to be considered. In some instances, in residential-scale systems, the presence of coliform bacteria may be the result of bacterial regrowth within the distribution system biofilm as opposed to the intrusion of contaminants, and therefore a boil water advisory may not be necessary. This determination would need to be made by qualified personnel using knowledge of the history of the system and other site-specific considerations.

Minimum treatment of supplies derived from surface water sources or groundwater under the direct influence of surface waters should include adequate filtration (or technologies providing an equivalent log reduction credit) and disinfection. For groundwater sources less vulnerable to faecal contamination, adequate treatment is recommended to ensure the removal/inactivation of enteric viruses (as outlined in the guideline technical document on enteric viruses), unless exempted by the responsible authority based on site-specific considerations including historical and on-going monitoring data.

3.2.4 Corrective actions for non-disinfected wells

The first step, if it has not already been taken, is to conduct a sanitary survey to verify the physical condition of the well, well head, pump, plumbing, and surrounding area. Any identified faults should be corrected before proceeding. If all the physical conditions are acceptable, then the following corrective actions should be carried out:

• Shock-chlorinate the well and plumbing system. Further information on this topic is available in the Water Quality.
• Flush the system thoroughly and retest to confirm that the water is free of total coliform contamination. Confirmatory tests should be done no sooner than either 48 hours after tests indicate the absence of a chlorine residual or 5 days after the well has been treated. Local conditions may determine acceptable practice. Water should be dechlorinated before being discharged to fish-bearing waters. The responsible authority should be consulted regarding the methods available, and the correct procedure, for carrying out dechlorination.

If total coliforms are detected after implementing these corrective actions, a boil water advisory should be issued, if one is not already in place. Alternatively, a source of water known to be safe should be used until the situation is corrected. The presence of total coliforms after shock-chlorination and flushing suggests that the well remains vulnerable to contamination. If the problem cannot be reasonably identified or corrected, an appropriate disinfection device or well reconstruction or replacement should be considered. In some instances, in residential-scale systems, the presence of coliform bacteria may be the result of bacterial regrowth within the distribution system biofilm as opposed to on-going contamination, and therefore a boil water advisory may not be necessary. This determination would need to be made by qualified personnel using knowledge of the history of the system and other site-specific considerations.

A single negative total coliform test result does not necessarily indicate that the problem has been corrected. A minimum of two consecutive total coliform negative samples should be obtained. An additional test should be taken after 3-4 months to ensure that the contamination has not recurred. Only a history of data can be used to confirm the long-term integrity of a supply when applied jointly with sanitary surveys. Further information on routine monitoring can be found in section 8.0.

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