Chapter 3 – The Canadian Profession of Arms

Section 3.1 – The Military Profession

The Profession of Arms is directly subordinate to the Sovereign’s representative in Canada, the Governor General. As the Commander-in-Chief of the CAF in formal and ceremonial terms, though not in practice. In practice, the Canadian profession of arms is responsible to the democratically elected Government of Canada, and, in particular, to the Minister of National Defence who manages and directs the CAF as well as all matters relating to national defence. The profession of arms comprises all members of the CAF and these military professionals are committed to the defence of Canada and Canadian interests as directed by the Government of Canada. Military professionals specialize in the study and application of military force. Military force means coercive, destructive and deadly force organized and applied in a disciplined manner according to ethics and law in the pursuit of political objectives as assigned by the Government of Canada. The military has no legitimate right to act on its own. Finally, military professionals live a shared ethos that builds trust within and across the CAF, the Government of Canada and Canadian society, knowing that the judgement behind the use of military force must be sound.

The profession of arms in Canada has developed, like many other such professions of arms around the world, with a societal imperative that the military remain subordinate to the duly elected civil authority and that it reflects, to an appropriate degree, Canadian values and universal virtues. The military profession in Canada has always been shaped by a functional imperative that demands a high degree of military effectiveness in the fulfillment of its assigned missions. Given that the military is a collective profession that requires the full range of its functions, capabilities and occupations to force generate and deliver operational success, military effectiveness is seen more broadly than simply success on operations. Military effectiveness is demanded across all military functions - force generation, force development, force management, force sustainment and force employment - which together enable the delivery of operational success. It is for this reason, that the profession of arms has granted primacy to military effectiveness in line with the functional imperative, rather than just primacy to operations.

Section 3.2 – Military Professionals

In Canada, military service is not an inherent right; instead, it is contingent upon meeting well-defined criteria that include medical, educational, cognitive, physical and conduct requirements, as well as citizenship or permanent residency status. These criteria are established to ensure that the CAF can maintain its capability to fulfill the responsibilities entrusted to them by Canada’s democratically elected government.

An individual becomes a member of the profession of arms in Canada upon enrolment and must take the Oath or solemn affirmationFootnote 43 and adopt the military uniform. Military members undergo extensive military training to become qualified in their occupation at which point they are minimally qualified for employment on military operations. From there, military members pursue higher standards of military excellence in their occupations as they strive towards mastery in their profession. CAF members are expected to embody professionalism from the moment they join, and this commitment to professionalism must be reinforced throughout their careers.

Upon enrolment, military professionals in Canada accept unlimited liability; the primary feature that sets the military apart from other professions in Canada.Footnote 44 Unlimited liability means the legal requirement for CAF members to accept that, in the process of their duties, they may have to risk their lives or the lives of those they lead to achieve success in the military missions assigned by the Government of Canada.Footnote 45 While other first responder professions like firefighters or police officers share certain aspects of liability and risk to their lives, the military is unique in that this unlimited liability also includes the legitimate use of force to injure or kill combatants in the name of national defence. Not only can soldiers, sailors, aviators and special operations forces be lawfully ordered to risk their life, but they can also order others to do the same. In addition, CAF members can be ordered to kill combatants or issue such orders to other CAF members, in accordance with applicable Canadian and international law.

While the distinctiveness of unlimited liability is a source of professional pride and identity, it needs careful consideration. This distinctiveness can lead to a culture of exceptionalism with potentially negative consequences for the military’s relationship with government and society, as well as for those within the profession of arms. The negative effects of military exceptionalism can strain civil-military relationships as it lends itself to viewing those not in uniform as somehow lesser. Similarly, if left unchecked within the profession itself, such distinctiveness can lead to certain military occupations viewing other military occupations as somehow lesser. Such negative exceptionalist culture can lead to mindsets that believe they have little else to learn or that they are above the law and, ultimately, this undermines the military ethos that sustains professionalism. Military professionals need to keep in perspective the understanding that the military is first and foremost a collective profession where no single occupation or person can fulfill the profession’s responsibility to government. The profession is a pluralist concept; all members and occupations are required in disciplined collaboration to achieve its government assigned missions. As such, all military professionals must commit to the ethos and to the humility required of a growth mindset if military effectiveness is to be sustained and enhanced through professionalism.

Aspiring members of the profession must embody behaviour consistent with professionalism. In Canada, along with the oath or affirmation and the adoption of the uniform, members demonstrate their professionalism by internalizing and living the military ethos, reaching and maintaining their occupational qualifications, pursuing the highest standards of military expertise, and by understanding, accepting and fulfilling all the commitments and responsibilities inherent within the profession of arms. In particular, the military uniform is a symbol of service deeply rooted in tradition and must be worn with pride and reverence. Thereafter, military professionals understand that professionalism is a constant practice of personal and professional growth. Such learning and growth can be accelerated through coaching, mentorship and experiential learning.

A critical and unique component of this collective profession is the relationship between the NCM and the officer. This relationship is one of dual expertise and complementarity. For example, in the relationship between junior officers and senior NCMs, the experienced senior NCM serves not just as an advisor, but also as a mentor to the junior officer. As the CAF is centred on developing and employing cohesive teams, this demands mutual respect and trust; it demands recognition that each role is vital to the achievement of the mandate of the profession of arms in Canada. As the security environment continues to evolve, so does the relationship between officers and NCMs. Over time, there has been some convergence of the professional expectations required from the NCM and from the officer. Despite this, there remains distinct roles and specialties that each group brings to the team. Officers need to be more technically proficient than in the past while NCMs are now expected to develop and execute plans as the demands of increasingly complex operations force their professional development to converge.

Section 3.3 – Military Dual Professionals

The Profession of Arms in Canada is also characterized by the presence of groups whose expertise is not specific to the military but rather is organized by civilian professions. To name a few, military doctors, lawyers, clergy, engineers, and psychiatrists belong to external professional associations and hold themselves responsible to a second professional ethic in addition to the military ethos.

As dual professionals they provide specialized advice and services to the chain of command on issues that relate to the well-being of individuals and on collective matters in support of the organization. Furthermore, military leaders, in turn, require specialized assistance to deal effectively with the unique demands and burdens that military service imposes. Medical, legal, spiritual and a wide range of other personnel services are essential to the well-being of the people who collectively make up the organization and, hence, to the health of the profession of arms itself.

Dual professionals are beholden to two potentially contradictory sets of obligations, especially in terms of group versus individual needs. Some dual professionals, operating within the limits of their civilian professional expertise, may have an ethical duty to balance the needs of the individual against the needs of the CAF. They must also understand and accept the military commander’s obligations to the successful accomplishment of the mission. Commanders must in turn respect the obligations of the dual professional and understand that the service such dual professionals provide is integral to the well-being of the force as well as to the accomplishment of the mission. In short, it requires both parties – the commander and the dual-professional advisor – to understand each other’s responsibilities and constraints, and then manage this healthy tension for the benefit of the profession of arms.

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Section 3.4 – Attributes of the Profession of Arms in Canada

The National Defence Act (NDA) is intentionally broad with the mandate for the CAF by simply indicating that the Minister of National Defence (MND) is responsible for matters relating to national defence and the management and direction of the CAF.Footnote 46 As such, the role, missions and tasks assigned to the CAF are wide-ranging. In short, the CAF is asked to do a lot. While mission success on operations is an important and tangible outcome, to achieve this, the military professional must be equally dedicated to the study and practice of the full range of activities within the national defence mandate. This means educating, training and preparing through experiential learning for armed conflict. By being ready for armed conflict, the profession of arms is best situated to adapt to the demands of less lethal missions on the spectrum of competition and conflict.

The professional attributes of responsibility, expertise, ethos and identity taken as a whole best represent what professionalism demands of those in uniform. While the attributes are unique unto themselves, they come together as interdependent concepts that are unified through a commitment to living the Canadian military ethos.

Military Responsibility

The core responsibility to defend Canada and Canadian interests rests upon the profession of arms. It manifests as a role, a set of potential missions and tasks that span the spectrum of competition and conflict , and that also range from war to insurgency, peacemaking, peacekeeping, domestic operations and a requirement for the general deterrence or prevention of conflict. This role and its associated missions and tasks define the scope and applicable domestic and international legal frameworks within which the military profession operates.

Central to this responsibility is the military professional’s self-discipline and commitment to maintain the highest levels of individual professionalism and contribute to the development of the highest standards of collective professionalism. Every military professional must hold themselves and be held accountable for their conduct and performance. This is most important given the increasingly powerful weapon systems used to fulfil this core responsibility, and also the fact that military leaders have considerable influence and authority over the military professionals they lead. As such, the military is often held to a higher standard than the rest of society because it is the sole instrument with which to exercise the state’s monopoly on the use of disciplined violence.

Officers and senior NCMs have a responsibility to lead and are delegated a right to command by assignment. As part of this responsibility, they have the authority and accountability to command, plan, make decisions, operate, develop their teams and train their own successors. The officer’s commission signifies the right and privilege to command at all levels, including the ordering of subordinates into harm’s way. The officer bears the responsibility of setting the conditions for mission success and then provides commander’s intent within which subordinates have the obligation to achieve the military objective. NCMs command at the tactical level. Only by leveraging the expertise of the NCM corps can officers effectively lead their diverse teams. Although this hierarchical distribution of authority, responsibility and accountability is often portrayed as straightforward, the complexities of real-world situations often blur the lines between officer and NCM roles and responsibilities.

Operating in alignment with Canadian values and universal virtues, the profession of arms must execute its responsibility with a dedication that extends beyond military effectiveness by embracing a commitment to the care and well-being of its members and their families. This duty is shared by officers and NCMs alike as they both bear the mantle of leadership and whose dedication in this regard contributes to creating effective, cohesive teams with high morale.

The highest standards of a collective profession are a direct result of the individual professionalism attained by its members through self-discipline and commitment. All members of the profession have an obligation to live the military ethos and thereby uphold the reputation of the military.

Military Expertise

Expertise stands as a vital attribute of the profession of arms. Military expertise is determined by the command and control of military teams whose primary function is the disciplined, ethical and lawful application of military force. Military professionals must have an intimate understanding of the law of armed conflict and a detailed understanding of the associated rules of engagement to effectively perform their military function. The theoretical and practical KSAOs associated with the conduct of armed conflict represent a sophisticated level of expertise that differs from any other profession.

Military expertise encompasses the acquisition, maintenance and constant advancement of the theory and practice of armed conflict. As one progresses in rank, military professionals broaden their understanding of this expertise from the tactical into the joint and combined levels using a pan-domain perspective throughout. This pan-domain approach means understanding where other instruments of national and international power are integrated within the five domains of conflict maritime, land, air, cyber and space) to achieve mission success. Footnote 47

The demands of modern conflict have forced expertise to transcend traditional boundaries;  it is no longer tightly confined to rank or position. The changing character of conflict has pushed more demands onto the junior levels of the military and caused a growing need for a highly developed capacity for judgement in the use of military force. Balancing mission success with the well-being of one’s subordinates and the ethical and lawful application of force in a variety of complex circumstances places a high premium on professional judgement. Developing that judgement requires not only the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities but the development of strength of character and a great deal of practical experience.

While tactical competence in individual and collective warfighting skills remains central to the profession of arms, this expertise alone is no longer sufficient to underwrite the defence of Canada. Military professionals today require a broader set of knowledge, skills and abilities to complement their willingness to collaborate and learn. Skills and knowledge normally associated with scholars, researchers, policy analysts, educators and diplomats are now also required of our sailors, soldiers, aviators and special operations forces.

Military Identity

Identity is an intrinsic and essential attribute of the military profession. One’s military identity evolves, shaped by society and the acceptance of unlimited liability through voluntary and dedicated military service. The CAF is a national institution that accepts Canadian citizens or permanent residents who want to answer the call to defend Canada and Canadian interests. Military professionals don the uniform and come to understand that they are part of a national institution that respects and reflects the best of Canadian values and universal virtues. One’s military identity encompasses not only that which is defined by the military’s role and ethos, but also a set of sub-identities that naturally form within the commands, formations, units, regiments, corps, branches and trades that comprise the collective profession of arms. A military identity is also a composite identity comprising a member’s own identity coincident with their professional identity that combine towards a common ideal of service in the defence of Canada. Moreover, one’s identity can evolve with the values and virtues that we choose to pursue through the self-discipline we demonstrate in the development of positive habits, both from a personal and professional perspective.

Customs and traditions play a significant role in the identity of a military professional as they can serve to initiate, commemorate and serve as a source of inclusion, inspiration and pride. However, customs and traditions can also be used to, intentionally or unintentionally, exclude, stifle and harm. Such negative effects to the individual and team can diminish trust, fighting spirit and ultimately, military effectiveness. Military professionals need to carefully consider if customs and traditions become outdated when examined through the lens of the CAF Ethos and not be afraid to let go and/or modernize those which no longer serve to inspire the current culture, or those that do not respectfully commemorate the past. Customs and traditions are creations of the profession and can therefore be modified. A healthy military identity allows the respectful conversations to happen to determine which customs and traditions continue to serve the profession and which customs and traditions need to be modified or dispensed with altogether.

Identity is also influenced by the changes to responsibility and expertise that occur over the length of a career. The types of military missions in which one participates significantly influence one’s professional perspectives and range of military expertise. While most collective training is rightfully focused on warfighting, one may spend an entire career on peacekeeping or disaster relief missions, which will significantly shape a professional identity. Similarly, one might spend most of a career on deterrence exercises and never deploy on a combat mission. The diversity of experience during a military career will have a profound and lasting impact on someone’s personal and professional identities. The very nature of being exposed to a variety of experiences will develop individual character and competence for the benefit of one’s team and the profession itself.

The affiliation as either an officer or an NCM determines the professional development, expertise, authorities, responsibilities and accountabilities given throughout a career. Officers’ responsibilities identify them as potential commanders who lead military teams of increasing size and staff officers who support the operational and institutional needs of the military system. NCMs are indispensable to the effective accomplishment of assigned tasks and the collective well-being and discipline of the team. The experience, challenges and successes that military professionals gather working in these different roles significantly influence their professional identity.

As such, military identity can profoundly shape an individual's sense of self in that it can provide a strong sense of purpose, belonging and duty. However, when being in the military becomes the dominating identity of a service member, it can pose significant risks. Over-identification with the military from an exceptionalist perspective can lead to challenges in both relating and transitioning to civilian life as individuals may struggle to find a new sense of purpose and belonging outside of the structured military environment. It is crucial for military members to cultivate a sense of self that extends beyond the profession and to prepare for life after military service. This is done by seeking meaningful purpose and connection in civilian society as an active and engaged Canadian citizen, and this must happen throughout one’s military career.

Military Ethos

The military profession also possesses a unifying ethos that underpins the profession’s every aspect. The military ethos ties the other three attributes together. While the ethos serves as a guide for the conduct of military professionals by providing enhanced meaning and purpose for their actions, it also combines with expertise to create the professional ideology for the CAF. Figure 3.1 offers a deeper understanding of the relationship between the attributes. In this case, the attribute of responsibility, which is assigned by government, drives the professional ideology (what the CAF does and how it does it) which in turn creates the profession’s unique identity. What is more, this relationship feeds back upon itself, with the lived military identity further reinforcing the professional ideology and potentially influencing the degree of responsibility bestowed upon it by government.

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Figure 3.1: Professional Ideology and the Professional Construct

Infographic depicting the professional attributes which form the professional ideology.

 
  • Long description

    The graphic portrays the four professional attributes in square fashion with responsibility at top, identity at bottom, expertise at left, and ethos at right. Multi-directional arrows flow in a circular fashion around the square indicating feedback between expertise, with responsibility and identity, and between ethos, with responsibility and identity. Professional ideology forms a teal box around both expertise and ethos horizontally through the diagram.

 

The ethos serves as the central unifying concept for the military profession as it harmonizes both fundamental imperatives, represents the character, competence and commitment required to develop trustworthiness, and constitutes an equal portion of the professional ideology. The elements of the ideology combine to fulfill the imperatives of the profession of arms.

The military ethos also transcends individual roles and functions by unifying military professionals under a shared set of ethical principles, military values and professional expectations. It reflects how military professionals view themselves, how they fulfill their function and how they relate to the government and to society. This is expanded upon in later sections as well as in The CAF Ethos: Trusted to Serve.

Section 3.5 – Conclusion

By exploring professional concepts, it is clear that the Canadian military is indeed a profession. Military professionals have distinct responsibilities and obligations associated with their membership in the profession of arms. Military service is not an inherent right but rather is contingent upon meeting specific criteria, including medical, educational, cognitive, physical, conduct and citizenship or permanent residency requirements. These criteria are established to ensure the CAF can fulfill its mandate as directed by the Government of Canada. Military service places unique demands on its military professionals, especially unlimited liability and the challenges in applying military force within the applicable ethical and legal frameworks.

Dual professionals - individuals who are members of both the military and another regulated profession like medicine or law - operate within the limits of their civilian professional expertise, but also have an ethical duty to balance the needs of their collective profession: the CAF.

The attributes of the profession of arms, which include responsibility, expertise, identity and ethos, are interdependent but also unified by the military ethos. The ethos and expertise combine to form a professional ideology that is used to fulfill the profession’s responsibility to government. Military identity is shaped by continued service in fulfilling that responsibility to government.

Because of its importance, the military ethos has been fully articulated in The CAF Ethos: Trusted to Serve but will be explored differently in the next chapter with a focus as it relates more to the profession than the individual.

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