Forest management and disturbances

Timber harvest

This section compares the total amount of wood harvested with the sustainable wood supply. To ensure that forests can continue to provide timber, harvests must remain within sustainable limits. The sustainable wood supply is defined as the potential volume of timber which can be harvested sustainably as determined by a complex analysis of ecological, economic, and social considerations. 

Annual timber harvest compared to the sustainable wood supply

Key results

In 2022

• Canada's sustainable wood supply was approximately 214 million cubic metres
• the amount of industrial roundwood harvested was close to 130 million cubic metres, which represents approximately 61% of the sustainable wood supply 

Maximum sustainable wood supply and annual harvest of industrial roundwood, Canada, 1990 to 2022

How this indicator was calculated

Note: Sustainable wood supply data presented are for industrial roundwood only. Harvested industrial roundwood is intended to be delivered to a mill (for example, logs and bolts, and pulpwood) and also includes poles and pilings.
Source: Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2024) National Forestry Database.

The annual harvest of industrial roundwood reached a peak of 208 million cubic metres in 2004, then progressively declined to a low of 116 million cubic metres in 2009. In 2022, the annual harvest of industrial roundwood was approximately 130 million cubic metres. This pattern is mostly the result of economic factors, such as the collapse in the United States housing market in 2008 and subsequent global economic downturn that led to reduced demands for Canadian lumber and pulp and paper products. The 2022 decrease in harvest compared to 2021 is mostly attributable to a net decrease in timber volumes harvested in British Columbia and Quebec.

Both the sustainable wood supply and the volume of wood harvested fluctuate in response to a wide range of ecological, social and economic factors. Changes in the sustainable wood supply are largely a result of adjustments in provincial forest management objectives. For example, the sustainable wood supply can be reduced in order to conserve animal habitat, or it can be increased to harvest insect-damaged wood. Comparing the amount of timber harvested to the sustainable wood supply is one way to track forest management.

Canada is committed to sustainable forest management, which is defined as "management that maintains and enhances the long-term health of forest ecosystems for the benefit of all living things while providing environmental, economic, social and cultural opportunities for present and future generations."^{Footnote 2}  In practice, sustainable forest management means ensuring that forests provide a broad range of goods and services over the long term. Therefore, forest managers plan for harvest levels that ensure the long-term sustainability of environmental, economic and social objectives for the managed forest.

Forest disturbances

Number of  forest fires and area burned

Area disturbed by insects

Estimated total area of annual deforestation 

Number of forest fires and area burned

Key results

• In 2023, Canada experienced an estimated 6 694 fires that burned approximately 161 825 square kilometres of forest
• While 1998 saw the highest number of forest fires, 2023 had the most area burned by forest fires in recorded history, more than double the previous record set in 1995

Number of forest fires by region, Canada, 1990 to 2023

How this indicator was calculated

Note: Data include fires of known and unknown or indeterminable origin. The Territories region includes Yukon and Northwest Territories. Nunavut was not included as they are not a part of the data sharing agreement with Natural Resources Canada. The Prairies region includes Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The Atlantic region includes New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador. Totals for 2023 do not include all forest fires taking place in national parks as they have not been reallocated to the appropriate provinces and territories. For more information, consult the Data sources and methods section. 
Source: Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2024) National Forestry Database.

Area burned by forest fires by region, Canada, 1990 to 2023

How this indicator was calculated

Note: Data include fires of known and unknown or indeterminable origin. The Territories region includes Yukon and Northwest Territories. Nunavut was not included as they are not a part of the data sharing agreement with Natural Resources Canada. The Prairies region includes Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The Atlantic region includes New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador. Totals for 2023 do not include all forest fires taking place in national parks as they have not been reallocated to the appropriate provinces and territories. For more information, consult the Data sources and methods section.
Source: Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2024) National Forestry Database.

Forest fires are a natural part of the forest ecosystem and are important for maintaining the health and diversity of the forest. Fire is the primary means of environmental change in the boreal zone and is just as crucial to forest renewal as the sun and rain. Forest fires release valuable nutrients stored in the debris on the forest floor. They open the forest canopy to sunlight, which stimulates new growth.^{Footnote 3}  However, they can also result in costly economic and environmental losses, as well as public health and safety concerns by directly threatening communities and infrastructure or reducing visibility and air quality through smoke. The expected hotter and drier conditions as a result of climate change may lead to more frequent and severe forest fires in Canada.^{Footnote 1} 

Over 160 000 square kilometers were burned by wildfires across Canada during the 2023 fire season, which is defined as the annual period during which forest fires are likely to start, spread and cause damage.^{Footnote 4}  This is more than double the previous record of approximately 73 754 square kilometers in 1995. The area burned in Quebec and Northwest Territories alone totalled just under 85 000 square kilometers in 2023. 

Climate change drove the extreme weather that made this fire season especially devastating.^{Footnote 5}  Climate change makes hotter, drier weather more common, which in turn leads to more intense and longer fire seasons.^{Footnote 6}  The summer of 2023 was the hottest in Canada in recorded history, further contributing to the drought conditions that made forests especially prone to igniting.^{Footnote 7}  The fires caused over 200 communities to be evacuated, with the heavy smoke causing air quality concerns across the country. ^{Footnote 5} 

The total area burned varies widely from year to year, but averages about 25 000 square kilometres annually. Only 3% of all wildland fires that start each year in Canada grow to more than 2 square kilometres in area. However, these fires account for 97% of the total area burned across the country.^{Footnote 8}  In 2022, about 2 636 forest fires across Canada, or 47%, were caused by human activity. However, this only resulted in approximately 655 square kilometres of forest being burned, representing just over 4% of the total area burned nationally.^{Footnote 9}  The specific causes of the 2023 fires are not yet available. 

Area disturbed by insects

Key results

• In 2022, approximately 132 000 square kilometres of Canadian forest were disturbed by insects

Area disturbed by insects, Canada, 1990 to 2022

How this indicator was calculated

Note: Includes beetle-killed trees. Trees that suffer moderate to severe defoliation are those on which 30% or more of the current foliage has been removed.
Source: Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2024) National Forestry Database.

Canada's forests are home to thousands of species of native and introduced insects. Most of the time, these species contribute a vital role to the normal functioning of forest ecosystems as prey for other species or by recycling nutrients back into the forest.^{Footnote 1} Only a small number of insect species kill trees and damage forests. This can occur when insect populations experience outbreaks over vast areas. Disturbance, or defoliation, is the removal of all or most of a plant's leaves by natural disturbance agents (for example, insects) or through the actions of humans (for example, the application of herbicides). These impacts can reduce Canada's timber supply and influence the functioning of forest ecosystems, which can in turn affect carbon stocks, increase fire risk and reduce the recreational and non-timber uses of forests.

Estimated total area of annual deforestration

Key results

• In 2022, an estimated 492 square kilometres of forest were converted to non-forest uses
  • This is due to deforestation from the agriculture, forestry, mining, oil and gas, built-up (for example, industrial development and golf courses), and hydroelectric sectors. 

Estimated total area of annual deforestation, Canada, 1990 to 2022

How this indicator was calculated

Source: Natural Resources Canada (2025) State of Canada's Forest Annual Report.

Deforestation is the permanent clearing of forests to make way for new, non-forest land uses, such as agriculture or urban expansion. The annual estimated area of deforestation in Canada has declined from about 640 square kilometres in 1990, to about 492 square kilometres in 2022. Two (2) spikes in the overall declining trend occurred in 1993 and 2006. These were due to forest flooding for the development of hydroelectric reservoirs. As of 2022, agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation in Canada with 225 square kilometers being converted. 

Forest regeneration

This section presents the total area of land that was regenerated by planting and seeding, as well as the number of seedlings planted in Canada between 1990 and 2022.

Key results

In 2022,

• approximately 4 131 square kilometres were planted with around 584 million seedlings
• approximately 98 square kilometres were seeded

Total Area planted and seeded, Canada, 1990 to 2022

How this indicator was calculated

Note: The data for 2022 only contains provincial land data. The data for 1990 to 2021 contains data from provincial, federal and private lands.
Source: Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2024) National Forestry Database.

Successful regeneration ensures that harvested areas return to a forested state so that they can continue to produce timber and maintain ecosystem services, such as regulating water and providing habitat for wild species. In all provinces and territories, tree regeneration is mandatory on Crown lands after harvesting activities.^{Footnote 1}  In 2022, there was an overall decrease in area planted, which can mostly be attributed to lower rates of planting in British Columbia compared to previous years. 

About the indicator

What the indicator measures

This indicator is not a single measure of the state of forests in Canada, but rather presents a series of measures that provide an overall picture of their condition. The specific measures used in this indicator are:

• Timber harvest
  • Maximum sustainable wood supply and annual harvest of industrial roundwood
• Forest disturbances
  • Number of forest fires and area burned
  • Area disturbed by insects
  • Estimated total area of annual deforestation
• Forest regeneration:
  • Area planted and seeded

Why this indicator is important

Ecosystem considerations 
In addition to their economic value as a key natural resource, Canada's forests constitute important ecosystems. They are home to about 180 native tree species across the country, as well as a great variety of plants, insects, fungi, birds, mosses, lichens and more. Of the 426 bird species that breed in Canada, about one-third depend on forests to survive. Forest characteristics such as age, composition and structure influence what species are able to thrive in Canada's forests. These forest characteristics are primarily driven by forest disturbances. Disturbances can be of natural origin, such as forest fires ignited by lightning, ice storms, and native insect outbreaks and diseases. They can also be human-induced, such as forest logging, land-use change and invasive pest outbreaks.

Climate change

Canadian forests are well adapted to natural disturbances, but climate change is altering the frequency, severity and size of disturbances and facilitating the movement of forest pests. The increase in disturbances may transform forest composition. For example, the anticipated increase in fire frequency and severity may benefit some species that could take advantage of the new conditions (for example, pines, white birch and red oaks), while other species could decline (for example, sugar maple, American beech and eastern hemlock). The rate of climate change in Canada also means that some tree species will not migrate quickly enough to maintain viable populations. Cumulatively, these effects will impact forest-dependent communities and make the lives of people in these areas more precarious through increasing frequency and severity of fires leading to greater needs to evacuate communities and a lower sustainable wood supply that can affect jobs in these areas.

Carbon cycle

Forests are a vital part of the constant movement of carbon from the land and water through the atmosphere and living organisms, both storing and releasing this essential element in a dynamic process of growth, decay, disturbance, and renewal.^{Footnote 10}  Land use activities (such as timber harvesting and land conversion) as well as natural disturbances (such as forest fires and insect infestations) result in greenhouse gas emissions. Land use activities can also indirectly lead to greenhouse gas removals. For example, as forests recover, carbon is removed from the atmosphere and converted into wood by trees. In 2020, natural disturbances (such as wildfires and insect infestations) accounted for emissions of about 8.8 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO₂ eq) and human activities (such as timber harvesting and agricultural activities) accounted for removals of 6.3 Mt CO₂ eq. For more detailed information on this specific issue see the Land-based greenhouse gas emissions and removals indicator.

Economic considerations

The forest sector is also an important contributor to Canada’s economy, serving as a key source of prosperity for people and communities across the country. The Canadian forest sector manufactures a wide variety of products, such as lumber, panels, wood pulp, and various paper products. The forest sector serves as an important source of economic opportunity for people and communities, employing Canadians from every province and territory except Nunavut. The economic contributions from the sector are particularly important in many rural, remote and Indigenous communities, where forest-related work is often the main source of income.^{Footnote 11}  In 2023, direct employment in the sector decreased slightly to approximately 199 345 people.^{Footnote 1}

Related intitiatives

The timber harvest portion of this indicator tracks progress on the 2022 to 2026 Federal Sustainable Development Strategy, supporting the target: "Between 2023 and 2026, Canada's sustainable wood supply level (guided by sustainable forest management policies to reflect the current unique social, environmental and economic characteristics of managed forests), exceeds the annual timber harvests”.

In addition, the indicator contributes to the Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It is linked to Goal 15, Life on land and Target 15.2, "By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally."

The indicator also contributes towards reporting on Target 10 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: “Ensure that areas under agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries and forestry are managed sustainably, in particular through the sustainable use of biodiversity, including through a substantial increase of the application of biodiversity friendly practices, such as sustainable intensification, agroecological and other innovative approaches contributing to the resilience and long-term efficiency and productivity of these production systems and to food security, conserving and restoring biodiversity and maintaining nature's contributions to people, including ecosystem functions and services.”

Along with 11 other countries, Canada is a member of the Montréal Process, an international working group of northern and southern hemisphere nations committed to sustainable forest management. Since 1995, the Montréal Process member countries have used a common set of science-based criteria and indicators to measure progress toward the conservation and sustainable management of 90% of the world's boreal and temperate forests.

Related Indicators

The Temperature change in Canada indicator measures yearly and seasonal surface air temperature departures in Canada. 

The Air quality indicators track ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), ozone (O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at the national and regional levels and at local monitoring stations. 

The Land-use change indicator reports on the change in how land was used and converted across Canada south of 60° North of 2010 to 2015.

The Land-based greenhouse gas emissions and removals indicator tracks exchanges of greenhouse has (GHG) emissions and removals between the atmosphere and Canada's managed lands. 

Data sources and methods

Data sources

The data for the Sustainable forest indicators comes from two main sources; the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers National Forestry Database and the State of Canada's Forest Annual Report from Natural Resources Canada.

Methods

Data from the National Forestry Database and the State of Canada's Forest Annual Report are used in this indicator. The only changes to the data are converting units to square kilometres where appropriate. There are no custom views of the data or additional data sets.

In line with the internationally agreed upon definition from the United Nation Food and Agriculture Organization, forests in Canada are defined as land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 metres and a canopy cover of more than 10% or trees able to reach these thresholds in their original habitat. This may also include treed areas, land cover where 10% or more of the area is covered in tree species of any size, and non-treed areas, for example, areas that have recently been harvested and that are temporarily unstocked. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.^{Footnote 12} 

Caveats and limitations

Area measurements used in this indicator are shown in square kilometers, where they may appear in hectares in other sources.

Resources

References

Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2023) National Forestry Database, Collaborators. Retrieved on November 4, 2024.

Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2023) National Forestry Database, Wood Supply. Retrieved on November 7, 2024.

Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2022) National Forestry Database. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Canada's National Forest Inventory (2016) Canada's National Forest Inventory. Retrieved on November 4, 2024

Government of Prince Edward Island (2019) Public Lands. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2017) Forestry in Canada. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2007) Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management in Canada, National Status 2005. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2020) Forestry Glossary. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2021) Forests and forestry. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2022) Sustainable forest management. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2023) Why forests need fires, insects and diseases. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2024) Forest fires. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2024) Statistical data. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

Natural Resources Canada (2025) The State of Canada’s Forests Annual Report. Retrieved on July 16, 2025.

SGS Belgium S.A. (2014) Forest Sustainability in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada (PDF; 2.59 MB). Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

SGS Belgium S.A. (2018) Forest Sustainability in the province of New Brunswick, Canada (PDF; 1.85 MB). Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

SGS Belgium S.A./NV (2018) Forest Sustainability in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada (PDF; 1.53 MB). Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

United Nation Food and Agriculture Organization (2023) Global Forest Resources Assessments. Retrieved on October 23, 2024.

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