Draft guidance on sampling and mitigation measures for controlling corrosion: References and abbreviations

On this page

References

Aghasadeghi, K., Peldszus, S., Trueman, B.F., Mishrra, A., Cooke, M.G., Slawson, R.M., Giammar, D.E., Gagnon, G.A. and Huck, P.M. (2021). Pilot-scale comparison of sodium silicates, orthophosphate and pH adjustment to reduce lead release from lead service lines. Water Res., 195:116955. Available at: DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.116955.

Anderson, K.E. (1983). Nickel in tap water. Contact Dermatitis, 9: 140–143.

Appenzeller, B.M.R., Batté, M., Mathieu, L., Block, J.C., Lahoussine, V., Cavard, J. and Gatel, D. (2001) Effect of adding phosphate to drinking water on bacterial growth in slightly and highly corroded pipes. Water Res., 35(4): 1100–1105.

Arnold, R.B., Griffin, A. and Edwards, M. (2012). Controlling copper corrosion in new construction by organic matter removal. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 104(5): E310–E317.

Atlas, D., Coombs, J. and Zajcek, O.T. (1982). The corrosion of copper by chlorinated drinking waters. Water Res., 16: 693–698.

AWWA (2017a). Internal corrosion control in water distribution systems: Manual of water supply practices M58. Second edition. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

AWWA (2017b). Standard ANSI/AWWA C810-17: Replacement and flushing of lead service lines. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

AwwaRF (1990). Lead control strategies. AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

AwwaRF (1994). Development of a pipe loop protocol for lead control. AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, CO.

AwwaRF (2004). Post optimization lead and copper control monitoring strategies. AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, CO (Report 90996F).

Bae, Y., Pasteris, J.D. and Giammar, D.E. (2020). Impact of iron-rich scale in service lines on lead release to water. AWWA Water Sci.peng 2(4). Available at: DOI: 10.1002/aws2.1188

Bailey, R.J. and Russell, P.F. (1981). Predicting drinking water lead levels. Sci. Technol. Lett., 2: 57–66.

Bailey, R.J., Holmes, D., Jolly, P.K. and Lacey, R.F. (1986). Lead concentration and stagnation time in water drawn through lead domestic pipes. Water Research Centre, Medmenham, U.K. (Environment Report TR 243).

Baron, J. (1997). La mesure du plomb au robinet de l’usager. Étude des méthodes d’échantillonage. Tech. Sci. Meth. Gen. Urbain Gen. Rural, 92(5): 47–54.

Baron, J. (2001). Monitoring strategy for lead in drinking water at consumer’s tap: field experiments in France. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply, 1(4): 193–200.

Beckett, M.A., Snoeyink, V.L. and Jim, K. (1998). A pipe loop system for evaluating iron uptake in distribution systems. In: Proceedings of the 1998 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, San Diego, CA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Benard, I. (1998). Évaluation de l’effet du silicate comme inhibiteur de corrosion dans un réseau de distribution de l’eau potable. École polytechnique de Montréal, Montreal, QC (Master’s thesis).

Benjamin, M.M., Sontheimer, H. and Leroy, P. (1996). Corrosion of iron and steel. In: Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. 2nd edition. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Technologiezentrum Wasser, Denver, CO. p. 46.

Berend, K. and Trouwborst, T. (1999). Cement-mortar pipes as a source of aluminum. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 91(7): 91–100.

Berghult, B., Hedberg, T. and Broo, A.E. (1999). Drinking water distribution: corrosion control in Swedish municipalities. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. – Aqua, 48(2): 44–52.

Berghult, B., Broo, A.E. and Hedberg, T. (2001). Corrosion control measures in Sweden and the effect of succession order. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply, 1(3): 47–58.

Birden, H.H., Calabrese, E.J. and Stoddard, A. (1985). Lead dissolution from soldered joints. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 77(11): 66–70.

Boffardi, B.P. (1988). Lead in drinking water—causes and cures. Public Works, 119(11): 67–70.

Boffardi, B.P. (1990). Minimization of lead corrosion in drinking water. Mater. Perform., 29(8): 45–49.

Boffardi, B.P. (1993). The chemistry of polyphosphate. Mater. Perform., 8: 50–53.

Boffardi, B.P. and Sherbondy, A.M. (1991). Control of lead corrosion by chemical treatment. Corrosion, 47(12): 966–975.

Boireau, A., Benezet-Toulze, M., Randon, G. and Cavard, J. (1997). Limitation de la solubilisation du plomb par ajout de produit filmogène. Transposition d’une étude sur pilote à un réseau réel. Tech. Sci. Meth. Gen. Urbain Gen. Rural, 92(5): 63–72.

Bondietti, G., Sinniger, J. and Stumm, W. (1993). The reactivity of Fe(III) (hydr)oxides: effects of ligands in inhibiting the dissolution. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 79(2–3): 157.

Bosscher, V., Lytle, D.A., Schock, M.R., Porter, A. and Del Toral, M. (2019). POU water filters effectively reduce lead in drinking water: a demonstration field study in Flint, Michigan. J Environ. Sci. Health A, 54:5, 484–493. Available at: DOI:10.1080/10934529.2019.1611141

Boulay, N. and Edwards, M. (2001). Role of temperature, chlorine, and organic matter in copper corrosion by- product release in soft water. Water Res., 35(3): 683–690.

Boyd, G.R., Pierson, G.L., Kirmeyer, G.J., Britton, M.D. and English, R.J. (2007). Lead release from end-use plumbing components in Seattle public schools. In: Proceedings of the 2007 AWWA Research Symposium – Distribution Systems: The Next Frontier, March 2–3, 2007, Reno, NV. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Boyd, G.R., Pierson, G.L., Kirmeyer, G.J. and English, R.J. (2008a). Lead variability testing in Seattle public schools. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 100(2): 53–64.

Boyd, G.R., Pierson, G.L., Kirmeyer, G.J., Britton, M.D. and English, R.J. (2008b). Lead release from new end-use plumbing components in Seattle public schools. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 100(3): 105–114.

Britton, A. and Richards, W.N. (1981). Factors influencing plumbosolvency in Scotland. J. Inst. Water Eng. Sci., 35(4): 349–364.

Broo, A.E., Berghult, B. and Hedberg, T. (1997). Copper corrosion in drinking water distribution systems – The influence of water quality. Corros. Sci., 39(6): 1119–1132.

Broo, A.E., Berghult, B. and Hedberg, T. (1998). Copper corrosion in water distribution systems – The influence of natural organic matter (NOM) on the solubility of copper corrosion products. Corros. Sci., 40(9): 1479–1489.

Broo, A.E., Berghult, B. and Hedberg, T. (1999). Drinking water distribution – The effect of natural organic matter (NOM) on the corrosion of iron and copper. Water Sci. Technol., 40(9): 17–24.

Broo, A.E., Berghult, B. and Hedberg, T. (2001). Drinking water distribution – Improvements of the surface complexation model for iron corrosion. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply, 1(3): 11–18.

Bryant, S.D. (2004). Lead contaminated drinking waters in the public schools of Philadelphia. J. Toxicol., 42(3): 287–294.

Camara, E., Montreuil, K.R., Knowles, A.K. and Gagnon, G.A. (2013). Role of the water main in lead service line replacement: a utility case study. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 105(8): E423–E431.

Campbell, A. and Douglas, I. (2007). Corrosion control in Ottawa. In: Proceedings of the Ontario Water Works Association Distribution System Workshop, Toronto, ON. Ontario Water Works Association, Markham, ON.

Campbell, H.S. (1954a). The influence of the composition of supply waters, especially of traces of natural inhibitor on pitting corrosion of copper water pipes. Proc. Soc. Water Treat. Exam., 3: 100–117.

Campbell, H.S. (1954b). A natural inhibitor of pitting corrosion of copper in tap waters. J. Appl. Chem., 4: 633–647. Campbell, H.S. (1971). Corrosion, water composition and water treatment. Proc. Soc. Water Treat. Exam., 20: 11–34.

Campbell, H.S. and Turner, M.E.D. (1983). The influence of trace organics on scale formation and corrosion. J. Inst. Water Eng. Sci., 37(1): 55–72.

Cantor, A.F. (2009). Water Distribution System Monitoring: A Practical Approach for Evaluating Drinking Water Quality. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Cantor, A.F., Denig-Chakroff, D., Vela, R.R., Oleinik, M.G. and Lynch, D.L. (2000). Use of polyphosphate in corrosion control. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 92(2): 95–102.

Cantor, A.F., Park, J.K. and Vaiyavatjamai, P. (2003). Effect of chlorine on corrosion. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 95(5): 112–123.

Cantor, A.F. (2017). Optimization of phosphorus-based corrosion control chemicals using a comprehensive perspective of water quality. Water Research Foundation and Water Environment and Reuse Foundation, Denver, Colorado. Report #4586.

Cardew, P. (2000). Simulation of lead compliance data. Water Res., 34(8): 2241–2252.

Cardew, P. (2003). A method for assessing the effect of water quality changes on plumbosolvency using random daytime sampling. Water Res., 37(12): 2821–2823.

Cardew, P.T. (2009). Measuring the benefit of orthophosphate treatment on lead in drinking water. J. Water Health, 7(1): 123–131.

Cartier, C., Laroche, L., Deshommes, E., Nour, S., Richard, G., Edwards, M. and Prévost, M. (2011). Investigating dissolved lead at the tap using various sampling protocols. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 103(3): 53–67.

Cartier, C., Arnold, R., Triantafyllidou, S., Prévost, M. and Edwards, M. (2012a). Effect of flow rate and lead/copper pipe sequence on lead release from service lines. Water Res., 46(13): 4142–4152.

Cartier, C., Doré, E., Laroche, L., Nour, S., Edwards, M. and Prévost, M. (2013). Impact of treatment on Pb release from full and partially replaced lead service lines (LSLs). Water Res., 47(2): 661–671.

CDM Smith. (2019). City of Newark Point-of-Use Filter Study (August–September 2019). Filter Results Report – Final. Newark, NJ.

Churchill, D.M., Mavinic, D.S., Neden, D.G. and MacQuarrie, D.M. (2000). The effect of zinc orthophosphate and pH–alkalinity adjustment on metal levels leached into drinking water. Can. J. Civil Eng., 27(6): 33–43.

Clark, B., Masters, S. and Edward, M. (2014). Profile sampling to characterize particulate lead risks in potable water. Environ. Sci. Technol., 48(12): 6836–6843. Available at: DOI: 10.1021/es501342j

Clark, B.N., Masters, S.V. and Edwards, M.A. (2015). Lead release to drinking water from galvanized steel pipe coatings. Environ. Eng. Sci., 32(8): 713–721.

Clifford, D.A (1999). Ion exchange and inorganic adsorption. Chapter 9 in: Letterman,R.D. (ed.), Water quality and treatment: a handbook of community water supplies.5th edition. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO; McGraw-Hill, New York, New York.

Clifford, D., Sorg, T. and Ghurye, G. (2011). Ion exchange and adsorption of inorganic contaminants. Chapter 12 in: Water quality and treatment: A handbook of drinking water. 6th edition. Edzwald, J.K. (ed.). American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado.

Colling, J.H., Whincup, P.A.E. and Hayes, C.R. (1987). The measurement of plumbosolvency propensity to guide the control of lead in tapwaters. J. Inst. Water Environ. Manage., 1(3): 263–269.

Colling, J.H., Croll, B.T., Whincup, P.A.E. and Harward, C. (1992). Plumbosolvency effects and control in hard waters. J. Inst. Water Environ. Manage., 6(6): 259–269.

Conroy, P.J. (1991). Deterioration of water quality in distribution systems – the effects of water quality arising from in situ cement lining (APP 9770). Water Research Centre, Swindon, Wiltshire, U.K. (Report No. DoE 2435-SW (P)).

Conroy, P.J., Kings, K., Olliffe, T., Kennedy, G. and Blois, S. (1994). Durability and environmental impact of cement mortar linings. Water Research Centre, Swindon, Wiltshire, U.K. (Report No. FR 0473).

Cordonnier, J. (1997). Protection des réseaux de distribution par les inhibiteurs de corrosion. Choix et optimisation. Tech. Sci. Meth. Gen. Urbain Gen. Rural, 5: 75–82.

Craik, S., Gammie, L., Gao, M., Melnychuk, P. and Bruineman, C. (2008). Lead at customer’s taps: results of the 2007 sampling program. Final report by EPCOR Water Services (Quality Assurance), Edmonton, AB.

Crittenden, J.C., Trussell, R.R., Hand, D.W., Howe, K.J. and Tchobanoglous, G. (2012). Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd edition. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.

CSA (2018a). American Society of Mechanical Engineers/Canadian Standards Association ASME A112.18.1-2018/CSA B125.1-18 – Plumbing supply fittings. CSA Group, Mississauga, ON.

CSA (2018b). Canadian Standards Association CSA B125.3-18 – Plumbing supply fittings. CSA Group, Mississauga, ON.

Del Toral, M.A., Porter, A. and Schock, M.R. (2013). Detection and evaluation of elevated lead release from service lines: a field study. Environ. Sci. Technol., 47(16): 9300–9307.

De Mora, S.J. and Harrison, R.M. (1984). Lead in tap water: contamination and chemistry. Chem. Br., 20(10):900–904.

DeSantis, M.K., Schock, M.R., Tully, J. and Bennett-Stamper, C. (2020). Orthophosphate interactions with destabilized PbO2 scales. Environ. Sci. Technol., 54 (22), 14302–14311. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03027

Deshommes, E., Laroche, L., Nour, S., Cartier, C. and Prévost, M. (2010a). Source and occurrence of particulate lead in tap water. Water Res., 44(12): 3734–3744.

Deshommes, E., Zhang, Y., Gendron, K., Sauvé, S., Edwards, M., Nour, S. and Prévost, M. (2010b). Lead Removal from Tap Water Using POU Devices. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 2010, 102 (10), 91−105.

Deshommes, E., Nour, S., Richer, B., Cartier, C. and Prévost, M. (2012). POU devices in large buildings: lead removal and water quality. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 104(4): E282–E297.

Deshommes, E., Andrews, R., Gagnon, G., McCluskey, T., McIlwain, Doré, E., Nour, S. and Prévost, M. (2016). Evaluation of exposure to lead from drinking water in large buildings. Water Res., 99: 46–55.

Deshommes, E., Laroche, L., Deveau, D., Nour, S. and Prévost, M. (2017). Short-and long-term lead release after partial lead service line replacements in a metropolitan water distribution system. Environ. Sci. Technol., 51(17), 9507–9515.

Deshommes, E., Trueman, B., Douglas, I., Huggins, D., Laroche, L., Swertfeger, J., Spielmacher, A., Gagnon, G. A. and Prévost, M. (2018). Lead Levels at the Tap and Consumer Exposure from Legacy and Recent Lead Service Line Replacements in Six Utilities. Environ. Sci. Technol., 52(16), 9451–9459.

Dodrill, D.M. and Edwards, M. (1995). Corrosion control on the basis of utility experience. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 87(7): 74–85.

Doré, E., Deshommes, E., Andrews, R.C., Nour, S. and Prévost, M. (2018). Sampling in schools and large institutional buildings: Implications for regulations, exposure and management of lead and copper. Water Res., 140 (2018) 110—122.

Doré, E., Deshommes, E., Laroche, L., Nour, S. and Prévost, M. (2019). Study of the long-term impacts of treatments on lead release from full and partially replaced harvested lead service lines. Water Res. 149: 566e577.

Douglas, B.D. and Merrill, D.T. (1991). Control of water quality deterioration caused by corrosion of cement-mortar pipe linings. AWWA Research Foundation, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Douglas, B.D., Merrill, D.T. and Caitlin, J.O. (1996). Water quality deterioration from corrosion of cement-mortar linings. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 88(7): 99–107.

Douglas, I., Guthmann, J., Muylwyk, Q. and Snoeyink, V. (2004). Corrosion control in the City of Ottawa – Comparison of alternatives and case study for lead reduction in drinking water. In: W. Robertson and T. Brooks (eds.), 11th Canadian National Drinking Water Conference and 2nd Policy Forum, April 3–6, Calgary, AB. Canadian Water and Wastewater Association, Ottawa, ON.

Douglas, I., Lemieux, F. and Weir, D. (2007). Testing the waters: putting Canada’s new corrosion control guideline into practice. In: Proceedings of the 2007 AWWA Research Symposium—Distribution Systems: The Next Frontier, March 2–3, 2007, Reno, NV. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Dudi, A. and Edwards, M. (2004). Galvanic corrosion of lead bearing plumbing devices. In: Reconsidering lead corrosion in drinking water: Product testing, direct chloramine attack and galvanic corrosion. Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. pp. 69–105 (A. Dudi Master’s Thesis).

Edwards, M. and Dudi, A. (2004). Role of chlorine and chloramine in corrosion of lead-bearing plumbing materials.

J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 96(10): 69–81.

Edwards, M. and Ferguson, J.F. (1993). Accelerated testing of copper corrosion. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 85(10): 105–113.

Edwards, M. and McNeill, L.S. (2002). Effect of phosphate inhibitors on lead release from pipes. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 94(1): 79–90.

Edwards, M. and Sprague, N. (2001). Organic matter and copper corrosion by-product release: a mechanistic study. Corros. Sci., 43(1): 1–18.

Edwards, M. and Triantafyllidou, S. (2007). Chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio and lead leaching to water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 99(7): 96–109.

Edwards, M., Ferguson, J.F. and Reiber, S.H. (1994a). The pitting corrosion of copper. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 86(7): 74–90.

Edwards, M., Meyer, T.E. and Rehring, J.P. (1994b). Effect of selected anions on copper corrosion rates. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 86(12): 73–81.

Edwards, M., Schock, M.R. and Meyer, T.E. (1996). Alkalinity, pH, and copper corrosion by-product release. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 88(3): 81–94.

Edwards, M., Jacobs, S. and Dodrill, D.M. (1999). Desktop guidance for mitigating Pb and Cu corrosion by-products.

J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 91(5): 66–77.

Edwards, M., Hidmi, L. and Gladwell, D. (2002). Phosphate inhibition of soluble copper corrosion by-product release. Corros. Sci., 44(5): 1057–1071.

Eisnor, J.D. and Gagnon, G.A. (2003). A framework for the implementation and design of pilot-scale distribution systems. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. – Aqua, 57(7): 501–520.

European Commission (1999). Developing a new protocol for the monitoring of lead in drinking water. Directorate General for Science, Research and Development, European Commission, Brussels (Report No. REPORT EUR 19087 EN).

European Commission (2015). Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1787 of 6 October 2015 amending Annexes II and III to Council Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption. Annex II, part D. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32015L1787.

Facey, R.M. and Smith, D.W. (1995). Soft, low-temperature water-distribution corrosion: Yellowknife, NWT. J. Cold Reg. Eng., 9(1): 23–40.

Feigenbaum, C., Gal-Or, L. and Yahalom, J. (1978). Scale protection criteria in natural waters. Corrosion, 34(4): 133.

Ferguson, J.F., Franqué, O.V. and Schock, M.R. (1996). Corrosion of copper in potable water systems. In: Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. 2nd edition. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Technologiezentrum Wasser, Denver, CO. pp. 231–268.

Frateur, I., Deslouis, C., Kiene, L., Levi, Y. and Tribollet, B. (1999). Free chlorine consumption induced by cast iron corrosion in drinking water distribution systems. Water Res., 33(8): 1781–1790.

Friedman, M.J., Hill, A.S., Reiber, S.H., Valentine, R.L. and Korshin, G.V. (2010). Assessment of inorganics accumulation in drinking water system scales and sediments. Water Research Foundation, Denver, CO (Project No. 3118).

Friedman, M., Hill, A., Booth, S., Hallett, M., McNeill, L., McLean, J., Sorensen, D., Hammer, T., De Haan, M., MacArthur, K. and Mitchell, K. (2016). Metals accumulation and release within the distribution system: Evaluation and mitigation. Water Research Foundation, Denver, CO.

Gardels, M.C. and Sorg, T.J. (1989). A laboratory study of the leaching of lead from water faucets. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 81(7): 101–113.

Gnaedinger, R.H. (1993). Lead in school drinking water. J. Environ. Health, 55(6): 15–18.

Gregory, R. (1990). Galvanic corrosion of lead solder in copper pipework. J. Inst. Water Environ. Manage., 4(2): 112–118.

Hatch, G.B. (1969). Polyphosphate inhibitors in potable water. Mater. Prot., 8(11): 31–35.

Hayes, C.R., (2010). Best Practice Guide on the Control of Lead in Drinking Water. IWA Publishing, London, U.K.

Hayes, C.R., Incledion, S. and Balch, M. (2008). Experience in Wales (U.K.) of the optimization of ortho-phosphate dosing for controlling lead in drinking water. J. Water Health, 6(2): 177–185.

Health Canada (1978). Iron. In: Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality supporting documentation. Bureau of Chemical Hazards, Environmental Health Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (1989). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Asbestos. Bureau of Chemical Hazards, Environmental Health Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

Health Canada (2013). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Vinyl chloride. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (2019a). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Lead. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (2019b). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Copper. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (2019c). Assessment of the Impacts of Iron in Drinking Water Distribution Systems. Prepared by Armview Engineering Limited for Health Canada, Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Ottawa, ON. Available upon request.

Health Canada (2019d). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Manganese. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (2020a). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Cadmium. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (2020b). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document – Aluminum. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (2020c). Guidance on natural organic matter in drinking water. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Health Canada (2020d). Guidance on monitoring the biological stability of drinking water in distribution systems – For Public Consultation. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Hedberg, T. and Johansson, E. (1987). Protection of pipes against corrosion. Water Supply, 5(3/4): SS20-1–SS20-7.

Hidmi, L. and Edwards, M. (1999). Role of temperature and pH in Cu(OH)2 solubility. Environ. Sci. Technol., 33(15): 2607–2610.

Holm, T.R. and Schock, M.R. (1991). Potential effects of polyphosphate products on lead solubility in plumbing systems. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 83(7): 76–82.

Holm, T.R., Smothers, S.H., Xiaofeng, Z. and Schock, M.R. (1989). Polyphosphate water-treatment products: their effects on the chemistry and solubility of lead in potable water systems. In: Proceedings of the 1989 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Philadelphia, PA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Holtschulte, H. and Schock, M.R. (1985). Asbestos–cement and cement-mortar-lined pipes. In: Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Engler Bunte Institute, Denver, CO. pp. 417–512.

Hong, P.K.A. and Macauley, Y. (1998). Corrosion and leaching of copper tubing exposed to chlorinated drinking water. Water Air Soil Pollut., 108(3–4): 457–471.

Horsley, M.B., Northup, B.W., O’Brien, W.J. and Harms, L.L. (1998). Minimizing iron corrosion in lime softened water. In: Proceedings of the 1998 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, San Diego, CA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Hoyt, B.P., Kirmeyer, G.J. and Courchene, J.E. (1979). Evaluating home plumbing corrosion problems. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 71(12): 720.

Huggins, D. (2007). City of London lead testing and remediation programs. In: Proceedings of the Ontario Water Works Association Distribution System Workshop, Toronto, ON. Ontario Water Works Association, Markham, ON.

Hulsmann, A.D. (1990). Particulate lead in water supplies. J. Inst. Water Environ. Manage., 4: 19–25.

Imran, S. A., Dietz, J. D., Mutoti, G., Taylor, J. S., Randall, A. A. and Cooper, C.D. (2005). Red water release in drinking water distribution systems. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 97(9), 93–100.

Jackson, P. (2000). Monitoring the performance of corrective treatment methods. WRc-NSF Ltd., Oakdale, Gwent, U.K.

Jackson, P.J. and Ellis, J.C. (2003). Demonstration of optimisation of plumbosolvency treatment and control measures. Drinking Water Inspectorate, Buckinghamshire, U.K. Report No. DWI 6173

Karalekas, P.C., Ryan, C.R., Larson, C.D. and Taylor, F.B. (1978). Alternative methods for controlling the corrosion of lead pipes. J. N. Engl. Water Works Assoc., 92(2): 159–178.

Karalekas, P.C., Ryan, C.R. and Taylor, F.B. (1983). Control of lead, copper, and iron pipe corrosion in Boston.

J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 75(2): 92–95.

Kashinkunti, R.D., Metz, D.H., Hartman, D.J. and DeMarco, J. (1999). How to reduce lead corrosion without increasing iron release in the distribution system. In: Proceedings of the 1999 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Tampa Bay, FL. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Katner, A, Pieper, K., Brown, K., Lin H., Parks, J., Wang., X., Hu, C-H, Masters, S., Mielke, H. and Edwards, M.E. (2018). Effectiveness of Prevailing Flush Guidelines to Prevent Exposure to Lead in Tap Water. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, (15): 1537; DOI:10.3390/ijerph15071537

Kimbrough, D.E. (2001). Brass corrosion and the LCR monitoring program. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 93(2): 81–91.

Korshin, G.V., Pery, S.A.L. and Ferguson, J.F. (1996). Influence of NOM on copper corrosion. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 88(7): 36–47.

Korshin, G.V., Ferguson, J.F., Lancaster, A.N. and Wu, H. (1999). Corrosion and metal release for lead-containing materials: influence of NOM. Water Research Foundation, Denver, CO. (AWWA Research Foundation Project No. 90759. No. 4349).

Korshin, G.V., J.F. Ferguson, and A.N. Lancaster (2000). Influence of Natural Organic Matter on the Corrosion of Leaded Brass in Potable Water, Corros. Sci., 42: 53–66.

Korshin, G.V., Ferguson, J.F. and Lancaster, A.N. (2005). Influence of natural organic matter on the morphology of corroding lead surfaces and behavior of lead-containing particles. Water Res., 39(5): 811–818.

Kuch, A. and Wagner, I. (1983). A mass transfer model to describe lead concentrations in drinking water. Water Supply, 17(10): 1330–1307.

Kwan, P. (2007). Lead in water: release before and after a lead service line replacement. In: Proceedings of the Ontario Water Works Association Distribution System Workshop, Toronto, ON. Ontario Water Works Association, Markham, ON.

Larson, T.E. (1966). Chemical corrosion control. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 49(12): 1581.

Larson, T.E. and Skold, R.V. (1958). Current research on corrosion and tuberculation of cast iron. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 50(11): 1429–1432.

LeChevallier, M.W., Lowry, C.D., Lee, R.G. and Gibbon, D.L. (1993). Examining the relationship between iron corrosion and the disinfection of biofilm bacteria. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 87(7): 111–123.

LeChevallier, M.W., Welch, N.J. and Smith, D.B. (1996). Full-scale studies of factors related to coliform regrowth in drinking water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 62(7): 2201–2211.

Lee, R.G., Becker, W.C. and Collins, D.W. (1989). Lead at the tap: sources and control. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 81(7): 52–62.

Lehrman, L. and Shuldener, H.L. (1951). The role of sodium silicate in inhibiting corrosion by film formation on water piping. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 43(3): 175–188.

Leroy, P. (1993). Lead in drinking water—Origins; solubility; treatment. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. – Aqua, 42(4): 223–238.

Leroy, P., Schock, M.R., Wagner, I. and Holtschulte, H. (1996). Cement-based materials. In: Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. 2nd edition. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Technologiezentrum Wasser, Denver, CO. pp. 313–388.

Li, B., Trueman, B. F., Rahman, M. S., Gao, Y., Park, Y. and Gagnon, G. A. (2019). Understanding the impacts of sodium silicate on water quality and iron oxide particles. Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol., 5(8), 1360-1370.

Lin, Y.-P. and Valentine, R.L. (2008a). The release of lead from the reduction of lead oxide (PbO2) by natural organic matter. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42(3): 760–765.

Lin, Y.-P. and Valentine, R.L. (2008b). Release of Pb(II) from Monochloramine-Mediated Reduction of Lead Oxide (PbO2). Environ. Sci. Technol., 42 (24): 9137–9143.

Lin, N.-H. Torrents, A., Davis, A.P. and Zeinali, M. (1997). Lead corrosion control from lead, copper–lead solder, and brass coupons in drinking water employing free and combined chlorine. J. Environ. Sci. Health A, 32(4): 865–884.

Lintereur P.A., Duranceau S.J. and Taylor J.S. (2011). Sodium silicate impacts on copper release in a potable water comprised of ground, surface and desalted sea water supplies. Desalin. Water Treat. 30, 348-360 DOI: 10.5004/dwt.2011.2255

Loschiavo, G.P. (1948). Experiences in conditioning corrosive army water supplies in New England. Corrosion, 4(1): 1–14.

Lowry, J. (2009). Lakhurst Acres, ME: Compliance issues engineering problems and solutions. U.S. EPA Sixth annual drinking water workshop: Small drinking water system challenges and solutions. August 4-6, 2009. Cincinatti, Ohio.

Lowry, J. (2010). Corrosion control with air stripping. American Water Work Association. Inorganic Contaminants Workshop, Denver, Colorado.

Lyon, T.D.B. and Lenihan, M.A. (1977). Corrosion in solder jointed copper tubes resulting in lead contamination of drinking water. Br. Corros. J., 12(1): 41–45.

Lyons, J.J., Pontes, J. and Karalekas, P.C. (1995). Optimizing corrosion for lead and copper using phosphoric acid and sodium hydroxide. In: Proceedings of the 1995 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, New Orleans, LA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Lytle, D.A. and Schock, M.R. (2000). Impact of stagnation time on metal dissolution from plumbing materials in drinking water. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. – Aqua, 49(5): 243–257.

Lytle, D.A. and Schock, M.R. (2005). Formation of Pb(IV) oxides in chlorinated water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 97(11): 102–114.

Lytle, D.A. and Snoeyink, V.L. (2002). Effect of ortho- and polyphosphate on the properties of iron particles and suspensions. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 94(10): 87–99.

Lytle, D.A., Schock, M.R., Dues, N.R. and Clark, P.J. (1993). Investigating the preferential dissolution of lead from solder particulates. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 85(7): 104–110.

Lytle, D.A., Sarin, P. and Snoeyink, V.L. (2003). The effect of chloride and orthophosphate on the release of iron from a drinking water distribution system cast iron pipe. In: Proceedings of the 2003 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Philadelphia, PA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Lytle, D.A., Sorg, T.J. and Frietch, C. (2004). Accumulation of arsenic in drinking water distribution systems. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38(20): 5365–5372.

Lytle, D.A., Williams, D. and White, C. (2012). A simple approach to assessing copper pitting corrosion tendencies and developing control strategies. J. Water Supply Res. T. – Aqua, 63(3): 164–175.

Lytle, D. A., Sorg, T., Wang, L., and Chen, A. (2014). The accumulation of radioactive contaminants in drinking water distribution systems. Water Res., 50, 396–407.

Lytle, D.A., Tang, M., Francis, A.T., O’Donnell, A.J., Newton, J.L. (2020). The effect of chloride, sulfate and dissolved inorganic carbon on iron release from cast iron. Water Res. 183:116037

Maas, R.P., Patch, S.C., Kucken, D.J. and Peek, B.T. (1991). A multi-state study of the effectiveness of various corrosion inhibitors in reducing residential lead levels. In: Proceedings of the 1991 AWWA Annual Conference, Philadelphia, PA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Maas, R.P., Patch, S.C. and Gagnon, A.M. (1994). The dynamics of lead in drinking water in US workplaces and schools. J. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc., 55: 829–832.

Maddison, L.A. and Gagnon, G.A. (1999). Evaluating corrosion control strategies for a pilot scale distribution system. In: Proceedings of the 1999 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Tampa Bay, FL. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Masters, S. and Edwards, M. (2015). Increased Lead in Water Associated with Iron Corrosion. Environ. Eng. Sci., Vol. 32 (5): 150127063128008. Available at: DOI: 10.1089/ees.2014.0400

Masters, S., Welter, G.J. and Edwards, M. (2016). Seasonal variations in lead release to potable water. Environ. Sci. Technol., 50(10): 5269–5277.

McCauley, R.F. (1960). Use of polyphosphate for developing protective calcite. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 52(6): 721.

McFadden, M., Giani, R., Kwan, P. and Reiber, S.H. (2011). Contributions to drinking water lead from galvanized iron corrosion scales. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 103:4:76.

McIlwain, B., Park,Y. and Gagnon, G.A. (2015). Fountain autopsy to determine lead occurrence in drinking water. J. Environ. Eng., 142(3):04015083. Available at: DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001047

McNeill, L.S. and Edwards, M. (2001). Iron pipe corrosion in distribution systems. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 93(7): 88–100.

McNeill, L.S. and Edwards, M. (2002). Phosphate inhibitor use at US utilities. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 94(7): 57–63.

McNeill, L.S. and Edwards, M. (2004). Importance of Pb and Cu particulate species for corrosion control. J. Environ. Eng., 130(2): 136-144.

Méranger, J.C., Subramanian, K.S. and Chalifoux, C. (1981). Survey for cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, zinc, calcium, and magnesium in Canadian drinking water supplies. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem., 64(1): 44–53.

Merill, D.T. and Sanks, R.L. (1978). Corrosion control by deposition of CaCO3 films. Part 3. A practical approach for plant operators. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 70(1): 12.

Miller-Schulze, J., Ishikawa, C. and Foran, J. (2019). Assessing lead-contaminated drinking water in a large academic institution: a case study. J. Water Health. 17 (5): 728–736. Available at: DOI: 10.2166/wh.2019.025.

Mulhern, R. and Macdonald Gibson, J. (2020). Under-sink activated carbon water filters effectively remove lead from private well water for over six months. Water 12(12):3584. Available at: DOI: 10.3390/w12123584

Murphy, E.A. (1993). Effectiveness of flushing on reducing lead and copper levels in school drinking water. Environ. Health Perspect., 101(3): 240–241.

Neff, C.H., Schock, M.R. and Marden, J. (1987). Relationships between water quality and corrosion of plumbing materials in buildings. Vol. 1. Galvanized steel and copper plumbing systems. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (Report No. EPA/600/2-87/036A).

Neuman, W.E. (1995). AWWC experience with zinc orthophosphate treatment. J. N. Engl. Water Works Assoc., 109: 57–60.

Ngueta, G., Prévost, M., Deshommes, E., Abdous, B., Gauvin, D. and Levallois, P. (2014). Exposure of young children to household water lead in the Montreal area (Canada): the potential influence of winter-to-summer changes in water lead levels on children's blood lead concentration. Environ. Int., 73: 57–65.

Nielsen, K. (1983). Control of metal contaminants in drinking water in Denmark. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. – Aqua, 32(4): 173–182.

Nielsen, K. and Andersen, A. (2001). Metal release from domestic water installations. In: Proceedings of the 6th International CEOCOR Congress, Giardini/Naxos, Italy. European Committee for the Study of Corrosion and Protection of Pipes, Brussels.

NRCC (2015). National Plumbing Code. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON.

NSF International (2020a). NSF/ANSI/CAN Standard 61: Drinking water treatment components—health effects. Ann Arbor, MI.

NSF International (2020b). NSF/ANSI/CAN Standard 372: Drinking water system components—lead content. Ann Arbor, MI.

NSF International (2020c). NSF/ANSI/CAN Standard 60: Drinking water treatment additives—health effects. Ann Arbor, MI.

NSF International (2020d). NSF/ANSI Standard 53: Drinking water treatments units—Health effects. NSF International, Ann Arbor, MI.

NSF International (2020e). NSF/ANSI 58: Reverse osmosis drinking water treatment systems. NSF International, Ann Arbor, MI.

NSF International (2020f). NSF/ANSI Standard 62: Drinking water distillation system. NSF International, Ann Arbor, MI.

Oliphant, R.J. (1983a). Summary report on the contamination of potable water by lead from soldered joints. Wrc Engineering, Swindon, Wiltshire, U.K. (Report No. ER 125E).

Oliphant, R.J. (1983b). Lead contamination of potable water arising from soldered joints. Water Supply, 1(2/3): SS 18‑5–SS 18-9.

Oliphant, R.J. (1993). Changing perception of the significance of potential sources of lead contamination in domestic water systems. Water Supply, 11(3/4): 339–412.

Pan, W., Johnson, E.R., Giammar, D.E. (2020). Accumulation on and Extraction of Lead from Point-of-Use Filters for Evaluating Lead Exposure from Drinking Water. Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol., 6, 2734.

Peng, C.Y., Ferguson, J.F. and Korshin, G.V. (2013). Effects of chloride, sulfate and natural organic matter (NOM) on the accumulation and release of trace-level inorganic contaminants from corroding iron. Water Res., 47(14), 5257–5269.

Peters, N.J., Davidson, C.M., Britton, A. and Robertson, S.J. (1999). The nature of corrosion products in lead pipes used to supply drinking water to the City of Glasgow, Scotland, U.K. Fresen. J. Anal. Chem., 363(5/6): 562–565.

Pieper, K.J., Krometis, L.A., Gallagher, D.L., Benham, B.L.and Edwards, M. (2015). Incidence of waterborne lead in private drinking water systems in Virginia. J. Water Health, 13(3): 897–908.

Pieper, K.J., Krometis, L.A. and Edwards, M. (2016). Quantifying Lead-Leaching Potential from Plumbing Exposed to Aggressive Waters. J. Amer. Water W Assoc. 108:9m. pp. E458–E466.

Pieper, K.J., Tang, M. and Edwards, M. A. (2017). Flint water crisis caused by interrupted corrosion control: Investigating “ground zero” home. Enviro. Sci. Technol., 51(4), 2007–2014.

Pieper, K.J., Martin, R., Tang, M., Walters, L., Parks, J., Roy, S., Devine, C. and Edwards, M.A. (2018). Evaluating water lead levels during the Flint water crisis. Enviro. Sci. and Technol., 52(15), 8124–8132.

Pinney, K., Craik, S., Gamal El-Din, M., Kindzierski, W., Gammie, L., Emde, K. and Westergard, J. (2007). Opportunities for improving drinking water quality in large buildings. In: Proceedings of the Western Canada Water and Wastewater Association Annual Conference, Edmonton, AB. Western Canada Water and Wastewater Association, Calgary, AB.

Pisigan, R.A. and Singley, J.E. (1987). Influence of buffer capacity, chlorine residual, and flow rate on corrosion of mild steel and copper. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 79(2): 62–70.

Purchase, J.M., Rouillier, R., Kelsey J. Pieper, K.J. and Edwards, M. (2020). Understanding Failure Modes of NSF/ANSI 53 Lead-Certified Point-of-Use Pitcher and Faucet Filters. Available at: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00709

Reda, M.R. and Alhajji, J.N. (1996). Role of solution chemistry on corrosion of copper in tap water: effect of sulfate ion concentration on uniform and localized attack. Corrosion, 52(2): 232–239.

Rehring, J.P. and Edwards, M. (1996). Copper corrosion in potable water systems: impacts of natural organic matter and water treatment processes. Corrosion, 52(4): 301–317.

Reiber, S.H. (1987). Corrosion monitoring and control in the Pacific Northwest. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 71(2): 71–74.

Reiber, S.H. (1989). Copper plumbing surfaces: an electrochemical study. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 87(7): 114.

Reiber, S.H. and Dostal, G. (2000). Well water disinfection sparks surprises. Opflow, 26(3): 1, 4–6, 14.

Reiber, S.H., Ryder, R.A. and Wagner, I. (1996). Corrosion assessment technologies. In: Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. 2nd edition. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Technologiezentrum Wasser, Denver, CO. pp. 445–486.

Renner, R. (2004). Leading to lead. Sci. Am., 291(1): 22, 24.

Renner, R. (2006). Lead in water linked to coagulant. Environ. Sci. Technol., 40(17): 5164–5165.

Rezania, L.W. and Anderl, W.H. (1995). Copper corrosion and iron removal plants. The Minnesota experience. In: Proceedings of the 1995 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, New Orleans, LA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Rezania, L.W. and Anderl, W.H. (1997). Corrosion control for high DIC groundwater phosphate or bust. In: Proceedings of the 1997 AWWA Annual Conference, Atlanta, GA. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Samuels, E.R. and Méranger, J.C. (1984). Preliminary studies on the leaching of some trace metals from kitchen faucets. Water Res., 18(1): 75–80.

Sandvig, A. (2007). Field evaluation of the impact of faucet replacement on lead levels measured at the tap. In: Proceedings of the 2007 AWWA Research Symposium – Distribution Systems: The Next Frontier, March 2–3, 2007, Reno, NV. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Sandvig, A., Kwan, P., Kirmeyer, G., Maynard, B., Mast, D., Trussell, R.R., Trussell, S., Cantor, A. and Prescott, A. (2008). Contribution of service line and plumbing fixtures to lead and copper rule compliance issues. Water Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado (Awwa Research Foundation Project No. 90721).

Sarin, P., Bebee, J., Becket, M.A., Jim, K.K., Lytle, D.A., Clement, J.A., Kriven, W.M. and Snoeyink, V.L. (2000). Mechanism of release of iron from corroded iron/steel pipes in water distribution systems. In: Proceedings of the 2000 AWWA Annual Conference, Denver, CO. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Sarin, P., Clement, J.A., Snoeyink, V.L. and Kriven, W.M. (2003). Iron release from corroded, unlined cast-iron pipe.

J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 95(11): 85–96.

Sathyanarayana, S., Beaudet, N., Omri, K. and Karr, K. (2006). Predicting children’s blood lead levels from exposure to school drinking water in Seattle, WA. Ambul. Pediatr., 6(5): 288–292.

Sarver, E., Zhang, Y. and Edwards, M. (2011). Copper pitting and brass dezincification: chemical and physical effects. Water Research Foundation, Denver, CO.

Schock, M.R. (1980). Response of lead solubility to dissolved carbonate in drinking water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 72(12): 695–704.

Schock, M.R. (1989). Understanding corrosion control strategies for lead. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 81(7): 88–100.

Schock, M.R. (1990a). Causes of temporal variability of lead in domestic plumbing sytems. Environ. Monit. Assess., 15(1): 59–82.

Schock, M.R. (1990b). Internal corrosion and deposition control. In: AWWA water quality and treatment: a handbook of community water supplies. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY (for the American Water Works Association).

Schock, M.R. (2005). Distribution systems as reservoirs and reactors for inorganic contaminants. In: Distribution system water quality challenges in the 21st century: a strategic guide. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Schock, M.R. and Fox, J.C. (2001). Solving copper corrosion problems while maintaining lead control in a high alkalinity water using orthophosphate. In: Proceedings of the 2001 AWWA Annual Conference, Washington, DC. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Schock, M.R. and Gardels, M.C. (1983). Plumbosolvency reduction by high pH and low carbonate–solubility relationships. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 75(2): 87–91.

Schock, M.R. and Giani, R. (2004). Oxidant/disinfectant chemistry and impacts on lead corrosion. In: Proceedings of the 2004 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, San Antonio, TX. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Schock, M. R. and Lemieux, F. G. (2010). Challenges in addressing variability of lead in domestic plumbing. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply, 10(5), 793–799.

Schock, M. and Lytle, D. (2011). Chapter 20: Internal corrosion and deposition control. In: J.K. Edzwald (ed.), Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook on Drinking Water. 6th edition. McGraw Hill and American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Schock, M.R. and Neff, C.H. (1988). Trace metal contamination from brass fittings. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 80(11): 47–56.

Schock, M.R., Lytle, D.A. and Clement, J.A. (1995). Effect of pH, DIC, orthophosphate, and sulfate on drinking water cuprosolvency. US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH (Report No. EPA/600/R-95/085).

Schock, M.R., Wagner, I. and Oliphant, R.J. (1996). Corrosion and solubility of lead in drinking water. In: Internal corrosion of water distribution systems. 2nd edition. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Technologiezentrum Wasser, Denver, CO. pp. 131–230.

Schock, M.R., Harmon, S.M., Swertfeger, J. and Lohmann, R. (2001). Tetravalent lead: a hitherto unrecognized control of tap water lead contamination. In: Proceedings of the 2001 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Nashville, TN. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Schock, M.R., Lytle, D.A., Sandvig, A.M., Clement, J.A. and Harmon, S.M. (2005a). Replacing polyphosphate with silicate to solve lead, copper, and source water iron problems. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 97(11): 84–93.

Schock, M.R., Hyland, R.N. and Welch, M.M. (2008a). Occurrence of contaminant accumulation in lead pipe scales from domestic drinking-water distribution systems. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42(12): 4285–4291.

Schock, M.R., DeSantis, M.K., Metz, D.H., Welch, M.M. Hyland, R.N and. Nadagouda, M.N (2008b). Revisiting the pH Effect on the Orthophosphate Control of Plumbosolvency. Proc. AWWA Annual Conference, Atlanta, GA, June 8–12.

Schock, M.R., Cantor, A., Triantafyllidou, S., DeSantis, M.K. and Scheckel, K.G. (2014). Importance of pipe deposits to Lead and Copper Rule compliance. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 106(7): E336–E349.

Seattle Public Schools (2005). Seattle Public Schools water quality remediation plan: results of special lead sampling at Decatur (AE II) School. Available at: www.seattleschools.org/area/ehs/drinkingwater/HDR/AttachmentE.pdf

Sharrett, A.R., Carter, A.P., Orheim, R.M. and Feinleib, M. (1982). Daily intake of lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc from drinking water: the Seattle study of trace metal exposure. Environ. Res., 28: 456–475.

Sheiham, I. and Jackson, P.J. (1981). The scientific basis for control of lead in drinking water by water treatment. J. Inst. Water Eng. Sci., 35(6): 491–515.

Shuldener, H.L. and Sussman, S. (1960). Silicate as a corrosion inhibitor in water systems. Corrosion, 16: 354–358.

Shull, K.E. (1980). An experimental approach to corrosion control. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 72(5): 280–285.

Singh, I. and Mavinic, D.S. (1991). Significance of building and plumbing specifics on trace metal concentrations in drinking water. Can. J. Civil Eng., 18(6): 893–903.

Singley, J.E. (1994). Electrochemical nature of lead contamination. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 86(7): 91–96.

Snoeyink, V.L. and Wagner, I. (1996). Principles of corrosion of water distribution systems. In: Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. 2nd edition. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Technologiezentrum Wasser, Denver, CO. pp. 1–28.

Sontheimer, H., Kolle, W. and Snoeyink, V.L. (1981). The siderite model of the formation of corrosion-resistant scales. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 71(11): 572–579.

Sorg, T.J., Schock, M.R. and Lytle, D.A. (1999). Ion exchange softening: effects on metal concentrations. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 91(8): 85–97.

St. Clair, J. Cartier, C., Triantafyllidou, S., Clark, B. and Edwards, M. (2015). Long-Term Behavior of Simulated Partial Lead Service Line Replacements. Environ Eng Sci. 2016 Jan 1; 33(1): 53–64. Available at: DOI: 10.1089/ees.2015.0337

Stericker, W. (1938). Sodium silicates in water to prevent corrosion. Ind. Eng. Chem., 30(3): 348–351.

Stericker, W. (1945). Protection of small water systems from corrosion. Ind. Eng. Chem., 37(8): 716–720.

Stumm, W. (1960). Investigation on the corrosive behavior of waters. J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 86: 27–45.

Subramanian, K.S., Connor, J.W. and Méranger, J.C. (1991). Leaching of antimony, cadmium, lead, silver, tin, and zinc from copper piping with non-lead based solder joints. J. Environ. Sci. Health, 26(6): 911–928.

Switzer, J.A., Rajasekharan, V.V., Boonsalee, S., Kulp, E.A. and Bohannan, E.M.W. (2006). Evidence that monochloramine disinfectant could lead to elevated Pb levels in drinking water. Environ. Sci. Technol., 40(10): 3384–3387.

Tarbet, N.K., Hegarty, B. and Jackson, P.J. (1999). Feasibility of using lining or coating techniques for reducing exposure to lead from water supply pipes. WRc, Swindon, UK. (DETR/DWI 4712)

Texter, C.R. (1923). The prevention of corrosion in hot water supply systems and boiler economizer tubes. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 10(9): 764–772.

Tresh, J.C. (1922). The action of natural waters on lead. Analyst, 47(560): 459–468, 500–505.

Treweek, G.P., Glicker, G., Chow, B. and Spinker, M. (1985). Pilot-plant simulation of corrosion in domestic pipe materials. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 77(10): 74–82.

Triantafyllidou, S., Lytle, D.A., Chen, A.S.C., Wang, L., Muhlen, C. and Sorg, T.J. (2019). Patterns of arsenic release in drinking water distribution systems. AWWA Water Science, 1 (4): e1149.

Trueman, B.F. and Gagnon, G.A. (2016). A new analytical approach to understanding nanoscale lead-iron interactions in drinking water distribution systems. J. Hazard. Mater., 311: 151–157.

Trueman, B.F., Sweet, G.A., Harding, M.D., Estabrook, H., Bishop, D.P. and Gagnon, G.A. (2017). Galvanic corrosion of lead by iron (oxyhydr) oxides: potential impacts on drinking water quality. Environ. Sci. Technol., 51(12), 6812–6820.

Tully, J., DeSantis, M.K. and Schock, M.R. (2019). Water quality-pipe deposit relationships in Midwestern lead pipes. AWWA Water Sci. 2019 Mar 4; 1(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1127

U.K. WIR (1997). Approaches for Controlling Plumbosolvency. Water Industry Research Limited, London, UK.

U.K. WIR (2012). Alternatives to Phosphate for Plumbosolvency Control. Water Industry Research Limited, London, UK.

U.S. EPA (1991). 40 CFR Parts 141 and 142, Maximum Contaminant Level Goals and National Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Lead and Copper; Final Rule. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

U.S. EPA (1992). Lead and Copper Rule guidance manual. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (Report No. EPA/811/B-92/002).

U.S. EPA (1994). Lead in drinking water in schools and non-residential buildings. Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (Report No. EPA 812-B-94-002).

U.S. EPA (2003). Revised guidance manual for selecting lead and copper control strategies. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (Report No. EPA-816-R-03-001).

U.S. EPA (2004). Controlling lead in drinking water for schools and day care facilities: a summary of state programs. Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (Report No. EPA-810-R-04- 001; Available at: www.epa.gov/ogwdw000/lcrmr/pdfs/report_lcmr_schoolssummary.pdf

U.S. EPA (2006). 3Ts for Reducing Lead in Drinking Water in Schools: Revised Technical Guidance. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

U.S. EPA (2007). Elevated Lead in D.C. Drinking Water – A Study of Potential Causative Events, Final Summary Report. Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (Report No. EPA 812-B-94-002).

U.S. EPA (2012). Radionuclides in Drinking Water, Compliance Options: Treatment Technology Descriptions. Available at: http://cfpub.epa.gov/safewater/radionuclides/radionuclides.cfm

U.S. EPA (2018). 3Ts for Reducing Lead in Drinking Water in Schools and Childcare Facilities: Revised Manual. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

Valentine, R.L. and Lin, Y-P. (2009). The role of free chlorine, chloramines, and NOM on the release of lead into drinking water. Report number 91243. Water Research Foundation, Denver, CO.

van den Hoven, T. and Slaats, N. (2006). Lead monitoring. In: P. Quevauviller and K.C. Thompson (eds.), Analytical Methods for Drinking Water: Advances in Sampling and Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., New York, NY.

Van Der Merwe, S.W. (1988). The effect of water quality variables on the corrosion behavior of water coagulated with a cationic polyelectrolyte and with lime/activated silica. Water Supply, 6(4): SS2.

Veleva, L. (1998). The corrosion performance of steel and reinforced concrete in a tropical humid climate. A review. Corros. Rev., 16(3): 235.

Vik, E.A., Ryder, R.A., Wagner, I. and Ferguson, J.F. (1996). Mitigation of corrosion effects. In: Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. 2nd edition. American Water Works Association Research Foundation and DVGW Technologiezentrum Wasser, Denver, CO. pp. 389–444.

Viraraghavan, T., Subramanian, K.S. and Rao, B.V. (1996). Drinking water at the tap: impact of plumbing materials on water quality. J. Environ. Sci. Health A, 31(8): 2005–2016.

Volk, C., Dundore, E., Schiermann, J. and LeChevallier, M.W. (2000). Practical evaluation of iron corrosion control in a drinking water distribution system. Water Res., 34(6): 1967–1974.

Vreeburg, J. (2010). Discolouration in drinking water systems: the role of particles clarified. IWA Publishing, London, UK.

Wang, L., Chen, A.S.C. and Wang, A. (2010). Arsenic removal from drinking water by ion exchange. U.S. EPA demonstration project at Fruitland, ID. Final performance evaluation report. Cincinnati, Ohio. EPA/600/R-10/152.

Wang, Y., Jing, H., Mehta, V., Welter, G.J. and Giammar, D.E. (2012). Impact of galvanic corrosion on lead release from aged lead service lines. Water Res., 46: 5049–5060.

Wasserstrom, L., Miller, S. and Schock, M. (2017). Scale formation under blended phosphate treated for a utility with lead pipes. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 109 (11): E464–478.

Williams, S.M. (1990). The use of sodium silicate and sodium polyphosphate to control water problems. Water Supply, 8: 195.

Wong, C.S. and Berrang, P. (1976). Contamination of tap water by lead pipe and solder. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 15(5): 530–534.

Woszczynski, M., Bergese, J., Payne, S.J. and Gagnon, G.A. (2015). Comparison of sodium silicate and phosphate for controlling lead release from copper pipe rigs. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 42: 953–959.

Zhao, J., Giammar, D.E., Pasteris, J.D., Dai, C., Bae, Y, and Hu, Y. (2018). Formation and aggregation of lead phosphate particles: implications for lead immobilization in water supply systems. Environ. Sci. Technol., 52(21):12612-12623. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02788

Zhou, E., Payne, S.J.O., Hofmann, R. and Andrews, R.C. (2015). Factors affecting lead release in sodium silicate-treated partial lead service line replacements. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A Toxic Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng., 50(9): 922-930.

Zlatanovic, L., van der Hoek, J.P. and Vreeburg, J.H.G. (2017). An experimental study on the influence of water stagnation and temperature change on water quality in a full-scale domestic drinking water system. Water Res., 123: 761–772.

Related resources

Additional guidance on corrosion control plans, lead service line detection and removal, communications to customers and a variety of other topics can be found in the references and links listed below.

AWWA (2005). Strategies to Obtain Customer Acceptance of Complete Lead Service Line Replacement. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO. Available at: https://www.awwa.org/Portals/0/AWWA/Government/StrategiesforLSLs.pdf?ver=2013-03-29-132027-193

AWWA (2017a). Internal Corrosion Control in Water Distribution Systems: Manual of Water Supply Practices, M58. Second edition. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

AWWA (2017b). Standard ANSI/AWWA C810-17: Replacement and flushing of lead service lines. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

AWWA (2017c). Water Quality in Distribution Systems: Manual of Water Supply Practices, M68. First edition. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.

Lead Service Line Replacement Collaborative. This has a variety of downloadable resources on many topics related to lead service line replacement, communications as well as schools and childcare facilities. These resources are available at: https://www.lslr-collaborative.org/

U.S. EPA (2016). Optimal Corrosion Control Treatment Evaluation Technical Recommendations for Primacy Agencies and Public Water Systems. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. Washington, DC. (Report No. EPA 816-B-16-003). Available at:

https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-07/documents/occtmarch2016updated.pdf

Abbreviations

30MS: 30 minutes stagnation time

ANSI: American National Standards Institute

ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials

CSA: Canadian Standards Association

CSMR: chloride to sulphate mass ratio

DIC: dissolved inorganic carbon

DS: distribution system

LSL: lead service line

EPA: Environmental Protection Agency (United States)

MAC: maximum acceptable concentration

NOM: natural organic matter

NPC: National Plumbing Code of Canada

ORP: oxidation–reduction potential

Pb: lead

POU: point-of-use

PVC: polyvinyl chloride

RDT: random daytime

SCC: Standards Council of Canada

SCCP: System Corrosion Control Plan

SG: System or zonal goal

Page details

Date modified: